Updated: 27.10.2020
The United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The United Kingdom is a sovereign state in western Europe which includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. It consists of four countries, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The estimated pupulation is 67,9 million and the capital city is London.
The UK is a unitary state, a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is a developed country and the fifth largest economy in the world. The current monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, reigning since 6th February 1952.
The Commonwealth
The Commonwealth is a sovereign state in which Queen Elizabeth II is the reigning constitutional monarch and head of state. There are sixteen realms and each realm is independent from the other realms. The Commonwealth of Nations is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states.The Commonwealth realms include Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Lucia and Solomon Islands.
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| the 14 Overseas Territories and the 3 Crown Dependencies |
The Overseas Territories are remnants of the British Empire, under the jurisdiction of the UK. The only one that is part of the EU is Gibraltar. The others are Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Saint Helena and more. The Crown Dependencies are three island territories off the coast of Great Britain. These are self-governing possessions of the Crown and include the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Isle of Man.
Symbols
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| St George from Legenda Aurea, 1348 |
England's coat of arms are three golden lions on a red background and its famous floral emblem, the Tudor Rose, symbolizes the end of the Wars of the Roses. St George, the parton of England, is known for slaying a dragon, and St George's Cross is the flag of England.
Scotland's national animal is a unicorn and the national flower is a thistle. William Wallace, the national hero, died a martyr in 1305, executed in London. St Andrew, the patron of Scotland, was a Cristian Apostle and the brother of St Peter. The flag of Scotland is the Cross of Saint Andrew. Tartan is a specific woven wool textile that often signifies a Scottish clan, it is featured in a kilt.
The national animal of Wales os a Red Dragon, which is also the flaf of the country, and the national flowers are a daffodil and a leek. The national motto, "Cymru am byth" means "Wales forever." The patron saint of Wales is St David.
The national flower of Northern Ireland is a shamrock, a three-leafed clover, or sometimes a flax flower. Saint Patrick's Saltire is used as a flag and according to legend, the patron of Ireland, St Patrick, banished all snakes from the island. Northern Ireland shares many symbols with the Republic of Ireland, because of the common traditions of the Irish nation, an example of this is a harp.
Typically British Things
A red telephone booth is a familiar sight on the streets of the UK, although their numbers were reduced in the recent years. It is often seen as a British cultural icon. In the Harry Potter series, the Ministry of Magic uses a booth as the visitor's entrance, activated by dialing 62442.
Since the 18th century, the UK is one one of the world's greatest tea consumers, on average, people consume 1,9kg a year. Tea time is from 5:30 to 6:30 in the afternoon. Dunking biscuits in the tea is another common practise. The British Empire was instumental in spreading tea from China to India. In 1787, Twinings Tea created its logo which is still in use today.
The main meal of the day is dinner, also called supper, and it is eaten between 6:30 and 8PM. There are many traditional British foods, such as black pudding or the Sunday roast. The traditional full English breakfast incluses bacon, sausages, eggs, toast, fried mushrooms, baked beans and grilled tomatoes and tea. Fish and chips are also a traditional meal, they are fried cod and potatoes, usually wrapped in old newspaper.
Pubs have a long tradition in the UK. They are classless establishments with legislation dating back to the 14th century. Most eating places in the UK have a rather formal atmosphere and in cafés and restaurants, people are expected to finish their order and leave. Pubs used to serve nothing but beer and spirits and women were an unusual sight in them, but this is changing. They still have their special character, there is no waiter service and customers have to order at the bar. There are traditional rules for the pubs, such as an outdoor hanging sign, and many social activities are tied to them.
Small talk is a conversation that does not cover any functional topics and it is an important social skill. Talking about the weather is absolutely typical for the Brits. The islands have unpredictable weather with a lot of moisture in the air and frequent rain. Sometimes, people joke that the UK has no climate, only weather. Queueing is a popular activity in Britain and you should never skip the line. In the UK, people queue peacefully, and need no barriers even in large numbers.
British people are very polite and apologise frequently. They are also said to be tight-lipped, because they stay emotionally calm and reserved, want to avoid making a fuss at all costs. Brits value privacy and a typical English person avoids physical contact with strangers.
The Scottish national attire is the kilt, its modern version comes from the 18th century. It is most often made of woolen cloth in a tartan pattern and worn on formal occasions. It also consists of a Jacobite shirt, a belt and a buckle, a sporran on a chain strap, a kilt hose, flashers and a pin.
The UK has no national police force nor any minister responsible for it. The Home Secretary is the police authority for the Metropolitan Police in London. Scotland Yard is the criminal investigation department of the Metropolitan Police and it assists other police forces. The Security Service, known as MI5, is the domestic counter-intellegence amd security agency. The Secret Intellegence Service, known as MI6, it the foreign inteligence service and is best known through the fictional character James Bond by Ian Fleming.
The British Armed Forces are the military services responsible for the defence of the UK, its overseas territories and the Crown dependencies. Today, they consist of the Royal Navy and the Royal Marines, the British Army and the Royal Air Force, with 149 thousand active personnel and 45 thousand reserve personnel. The Commander-in-chief is the British monarch, but de facto the Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for Defence. The UK is one of the recognized nuclear powers and a leading member of the NATO military alliance. The SAS (Special Air Service) is a special forces unit of the Army founded in 1941, they undertake a number of roles including special operations, counter-terrorism, covert reconnaissance, direct action and hostage rescue.
The communications media of the UK belong to the most influential in the world. The most prestigious papers are The Times, The Guardian and The Observer. The quality serious-minded newspapers are called broadsheets and the more populist are called tabloids, the most popular are The Sun, Daily Star and Daily Mirror. The state-owned British Broadcasting Corporation BBC has an international reputation and it is the oldest national broadcasting organisation.
The National Health Service was established in 1948 to provide free medical care. It was one of the major social reforms to establish comprehensive, universal and free services. This does not include dental treatment and optical care. The four countries of the UK have their independent branches of the NHS.
There is no formal definition of who is or is not a member of the British Royal Family. They are regarded as cultural icons and their lives are closely followed. The Queen is addressed as Her Majesty and all the princes and princesses are addressed as His or Her Royal Highness.
Languages in the UK
Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift which occured mainly in the 15th century. By the time of Shakespeare, the language becomes clearly recognzable for contemporary readers and in 1604, the first English dictionary was published.
There are many different dialects in British English, some regional and some social. The one most students know is RP, received pronunciation, originally a upper class accents taught at schools, spoken by the aristocracy and used by the state employees such as clerks, police officers and soldiers.
Welsh (Cymraeg) is a Brittonic Celtic language native to Wales. It has about 562 thousand native speakers in Wales, which is 19% of the population.
Scottish Gaelic is a language native to the Gaels of Scotland and spoken in the far North, mainly the Highlands and the Hebrides. There are around 57 thousand speakers, only 1,1% of the Scottish population.
Scots is a Germanic language spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster. There are around 1,5 million native speakers, about 30% of the population, but only about 120 thousand people report it as their first language. Ulster Scots, also called Scots-Irish, is a dialect of Scots spoken in parts of Ulster in Ireland. Scots language arrived in Ireland during the early 17th century and it has been influenced by English and Irish.
Cornish is a Brittonic Celtic language native to Cornwall. It became extinct as a first language in the 18th century and was revived in the early 20th century. There are no first language speakers and only a few hundred second language speakers. Is is spoken fluently by about 3 thousand people.
Geography
The English Channel, called La Manche in French, separates southern England from France. The UK is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel (Chunnel), which is with its 50 km the longest underwater tunnel in the world. The most common ferry route across the Channel is from Calais to Dover.
The longest river is the River Severn, the River Thames is the second longest. Other important rivers are Trent, Avon and Tyne. The UK has an extensive system of canals, most build during the Industrial Revolution. There are also several important ports, such as Liverpool on the Mersey river, Glasgow on the Clyde and Belfast on Lagan.
The UK has a temperate maritime climate, with a plentiful rainfall all year round. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters. More than 50% of the days are overcast and the weather is changeable because of jet streams. Scotland is the windiest country in Europe and European windstorms are a common feature in autumn and winter.
The UK landscape is mostly hilly. It has a variety of natural resources. Geological resources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, and also chalk, iron ore, tin, salt, silver and gold. Natural gass and oil were discovered in the 1960s in the North Sea and influenced the economy greatly. Because of this, the UK has large energy resources and it distributes oil and gas by a pipeline system. The highest portion of employees is in the service sector and many people also work in financial services. The UK exports machinery, automobiles, electronics and aerospace equipment. Agricultural resources are wheat, barley, oats, hay and sugar beets and the most common animal is sheep.
England accounts for 53% of the total area of the UK. Most of the country consists of lowland terrain. Mountains are to the north and west and they include the Cumbrian Mountains, the Pennies, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The Lake District, a mountainous region in North West England, is a popular holiday destination, it is also famous for its association with the Lake Poets.
Scotland accounts for 32% of the UK and includes nearly 800 islands, predominantly in the west and north, most notable are the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. It is divided into the Highlands to the north and to Lowlands to the south and east. The highest mountain is Ben Nevis with 1345m. Loch Ness is the largest lake by volume and Loch Fyne is the longest, a sea lake extending 65km inland.
Wales is mostly mountainous. The highest mountain of Snowdonia is Snowdon, called Yr Wyddfa in Welsh. The Anglesey island lies off in the north-west of Wales.
Northern Ireland is separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel. It is mostly hilly, some hills were created by volcanic activity and the Sperrin Mountains have extensive gold deposits. Lough Neagh is the largest lake in the British Isles by area. The largest island is Rathlin, off the north Atrim coast.
Political System
The UK has a very interesting political system, because its constitution is uncodified and consists mainly of a collection of written sources and conventions. As a democratic country, the power in the state is separated into legislative, judicial and executive branches, but there is no written document to formalise this arrangement. The UK parliamentary system is one of the oldest in the world and it originates in the 13th century. The right to vote is given to all citizens at the age of 18. |
| state opening of the Parliament |
The office of the Prime Minister is not established by any statute or constitutional document, it exists as a long established convention. Typically, the leader of the political party or coalition that holds the largest number of seats in the House of Commoms is appointed Prime Minister by the Queen. He then chooses ministers to form the Cabinet, a special advisory group. He has the power to request the monarch to dissolve Parliament and call a general election.
The legislative power is held by the Parliament which meets in the Palace of Westminster and it is bicameral, it has two houses. It is the supreme legislative body of the UK. The Sovereign is also a part of the Parliament, however, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. Bills passes by the Parliament are given Royal Assent which makes them into law. The royal right of veto has not been exercised since the 18th century.
The lower house is the House of Commons, an elected body consisting of 650 Mempers of Parliament, often called simply PMs. The elections have a very old first-past-the-post system, are held every five years and each member represents one parliamentary constituency. This house de facto holds the legislative power.
The upper house is the House of Lords includes the Lords Spiritual of the Church, and Lords Temporal, consisting of life peers appointed by the Sovereign and hereditary peers. Their legislative power was reduced in 1911 and now it is limited to only delaying and revising legislation.
In modern history, three political parties became major in the UK. The Conservative Party, the socialist Labour Pary and the Liberal Democrats. The current Prime Minister, Theresa May, is the Leader of the Conservative Party.
The judicial power of the UK functions to hear upon and resolve the matters of law and to develop the law through judgements. The Supreme Court of the UK was established in 2009 and it assumed the judicial functions of the House of Lords.
Population
The population of the UK is slowly growing, with estimated 67,9 million people living in the country in 2020. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. The largest urban areas are London, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds and Glasgow.Historically, indigenous British people are descendants of Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and Normans. The UK has the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the 19th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, many immmigrants arrived from Asia, Africa and the Carribean. Since the 1990s, immigrants arrive from all parts of the world. In the 2011 census, almost 13% of the population identified themselves as an ethnic minority and the number is growing.
There is about 270 thousand Jewish people in the UK, which makes it one of the largest Jewish congregations in Europe. Most of them live in communities in large provincial cities and especially London. Jews came to England in 1070 but were expelled by King Edward I in 1290 by the Edict of Expulsion. Oliver Cromwell unofficially permitted them to return in 1656. Jewish Emancipation is commonly dated with the years 1829 and 1858, thanks to the Prime Minister of Jewish origin, Benjamin Disraeli. The UK was a religiously tolerant country in the 19th century and many Jews from Europe emigrated there. In the 20th century, most Jewish emigration was caused by the Nazi regime.
Economy
The UK has a partially regulated market economy. Today, it is the fifth-largest economy in the world and the second-largest in Europe. Her Majesty's Treasury is responsible for developing and executing the governments's public finance policy and economic policy.The Bank of England is the central bank and it is responsibke for issuing notes and coins in the nation's currency, the pound sterling. It was established in 1694 and became the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Its headquarters are in the City of London, in the main financial district, since 1734.
The pound sterling is the third-largest reserve currency in the world. It is the oldest currency in continuous use, the pound subdivided into pence was already known to the Algo-Saxons. The pound was finally decimalised in 1971, when the shilling and the penny was replaced by the new penny. Today, it is subdivided into 100 pence, singular of which is penny. It is the fourth most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market.
The service sector makes up around 79 per cent of GDP. London is one of the centres of the global economy and the world's largest financial centre (together with New York). Tourism is very important to the British economy, it is the sixth major tourist destination in the world.
The Industrial Revolution started in the UK in the 18th century and made it into the world's leading commercial nation. The initial concentration on the textile industry was followed by other heavy industries, such as shipbuilding, coal mining and steelmaking. The automotive and aerospace industry are still prominent today. The pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the economy, the countey has the third-highest share of global pharmaceutical R&D expenditures.
Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient, producing about 60 per cent of food needs with less than 1,6 per cent labour force. Arounf two-thirds of production is devoded to livestock, the rest to arable crops. There is also some significant fishing industry.
The UK is rich in a number of natural resources, including coal, petroleum, natural gass, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, chalk, gypsum, clay, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.
Education
The four countries of the UK have separate systems of education under separate governments. In each country, there are five stages of education, early, primary, secondary, further education and higher education. The law states that full time education is compulsory for all children from age 5 to 16, but in England, it was extended to the age of 18. It does not need to be at a schoo and some parents choose to home educate. The National Curriculum provides framework for education in England and Wales, it is mostly followed but not compulsory. The system of schools, exams and educational stages in the UK is very complicated and often depends on the type of school or the local tradition.Before the age of 5, most children attend kindergarten, a nursery or a pre-school. It is said to suffer from a lack of funding. Funding cuts also influence specialist education for disabled children and special needs children. Primary education includes the first six years of compulsory education. In Year 6, pupils sit the SATS exam and are divided into comprehensive and selective schools.
Secondary school, also called high school, is from Year 7 to Year 11 and ends with the GCSE exam. Grammar schools also start in Year 7, but continue upto Year 13, on the other hand, separate Years 12 and 13 are called college of the sixth form. Sixth form is not compulsory, but some form of education or training is mandatory until the age of 18. National Apprentice Service helps students to enter apprenticeship or traineeship in order to learn a skilled trade. At the end of Year 13, students take the A-Levels exam, a subject-based exam which is required for university entrance. Approximately 7% of children in England attend privately run, fee-charging independent schools, known also as public schools and prep schools.
Higher education is provided by colleges, university colleges and universities and it is not compulsory. An undergraduate is a student until receiving a bachelor's degree. Graduate and postgraduate education is not automatically financed by the state. Universities have generally been instituted by royal charter, papal bull or Act of Parliament. British higher education has a strong international reputation and the top universities include the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, the University of Edinburgh and the University College London.
Public schools in England and Wales are long-established, student-selective, fee-charging independent secondary schools. Traditionally, they were all-male boarding schools from age 11 to 18 associated with the ruling classes. The original nine and most known are Eton College, Harrow School, Merchant Taylors', St Paul's School, Rugby School, Westminster School, Charterhouse, Shrewsbury and Winchester College.
Eton College is near Windsor and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI. It is one of only four remaining boy school in the UK, the rest became co-educational. Many Prime Ministers and UK aristocrates were educated there, it is the sixth most expensive boarding school in the UK.
Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist and astronomer who is recognized as one on the most influential scientists of all time. His book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy was published in 1687 and laid foundations of classical mechanics. He formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that proved Kepler's theories and the Solar System's heliocentricity. He built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates white light into the colour of the visible spectrum. He studied at the University of Cambridge and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted. He introduced the concept of natural selection and explained the diversity of life. He is best known for his book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. He studied at the University of Cambridge and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Stephen William Hawking was an English theoretical physicist and cosmologist. He studied at both the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. In 1963, he was diagnosed with ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) that gradually maralysed him. He achieved success also in popular science with his book A Brief History of Time, published in 1988. His main work centred around the fields of general relativity and quantum gravity. He died in 2018 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish physician and microbiologist. His pest known discoveries are the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the first broadly effective antibiotic substance benzylpenicillin in 1928. He shared the Nbel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945. He studied at the Imperial College London and he is buried in St Paul's Cathedral.
Historians still debate about the Insular Celtic settlement, which occured in the Bronze Age or the Iron Age, from about 2000BC to 400BC. They brought the Celtic language with them, which was split into two groups. Brittonic Celtic in Great Britain split into several dialects including Welsh and Cornish. Gaelic Celtic split into Irish in Ireland, Scottish Gaelic in Highland Scotland and Manx on the Isle of Man.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55BC and 54BC as part of the Gallic Wars. The Roman conquest began in 43AD and southern Britain became a part of the Roman Empire. In the 2nd century, two walls were built, the Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall. In 410AD, the Romans wthdrew from Britain.
In the 5th century, a series of invasions by Germanic-speaking groups occured. Three main tribes that settled Britain were Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who established seven principal kingdoms, called the Heptarchy. These people were fierce warriors who desired a glorios death in battle. The language spoken at this time is called Old English, developed from Anglo-Frisian or Ingvaeonic dialects. During the 7th century, these tribes were Christianised. There was also the constant threat of a Viking invasion from Scandinavia and the tribe of Danes even established Danelaw in north-east England in the 9th century.
In 1066, the Normans and their Breton allies invaded England from northern France. They were lead by William, the Duke of Normandy, who defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. He proclaimed himself King William I and built a system of castles. Scotland maintained its independence and was in constant conflict with England. The Normans brought with them feudalisation, Norman-French culture and language, Old Norman. In England, Anglo-Norman language developed, because Normans were the ruling class, and more than a century later, Middle English became the main language. Normans brought chivalry and courtship to England, they were noble knights with the ideal of a platonic love to a lady.
Magna Carta Libertatum, the Great Charter of the Liberties, is a charter of rights agreed to by King John of England in 1215. Two years later, it became a part of the Treaty of Lambeth and wasoften reissued and confirmed by Kings. It concerned the mediaeval relationship between the monarch and the barons and became an iconic document. Although more a legend than an actual constitution, it became a symbol of freedom.
The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were heavily involved in conflicts in France. The Kings of Scots were in alliance with the French, which brought further conflict. The Hundred Years' War, from 1337 to 1453, was a series of coflicts between the English House of of Plantagenet and French House of Valois over the right to rule the Kingdom of France.
Because of poor government and an economic crisis, a sequence of civil wars began over the English throne. Two branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, the House of York, symbolised by a white rose, and the House of Lancaster, symbolised by a red rose, eliminated their male lines in what wal later called the Wars of the Roses, from 1455 to 1487. Henry Tudor, relative to the Lancaster line, married Elizabeth of York, united the claims to the throne and became King Henry VII.
Five monarch of the
Most famous for having six wives, King Henry VIII radically changed England in many ways. In his struggle to get his marriage with Catherine divorced or annulled, Spain and the Pope became his enemies. He declared the king Supreme Head of the Church of England and severed the ties to the Catholic Church. He also became the King of Ireland in 1542 and established a personal union between English and Irish crowns.
In 1547, Henry's son with his third wife, Jane Seymour, was crowned King Edward VI of England and Ireland. Becaouse he was only a child, a regency council ruled the realm. The Church of England became recognisably Protestant. There was also war with Scotland again and Queen Mary of Scots, who was crowned in 1542, when she was six days old, was sent to France to marry Francis, the Dauphin of France. After Edward's death in 1553, Lady Jane Grey became the Nine Days' Queen, buth she was imprisoned and later executed for treason.
Queen Mary I was the daugher of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. She is best known for her aggressive attempt to reverse the English Reformation, this is why she is called Bloody Mary. She married Phillip II of Spain and became queen consor of Habsburg Spain. Her reigh is commonly viewed quite negatively, especially by Protestants.
Queen Elizabeth I was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn and the last Tudor monarch. She was a tolerant and cautious ruler and her reign is known as the Elizabethan Era, a Golden Age of English history. English Renaissance is a famous cultural period of poetry, music and literature, most notably for theatre and William Shakespeare. The Spanish Armada failed to invade England in 1588 and the realm was free to explore the seas and expand its borders. The religious divisions were settled for a time and England was economically stable, politically centralised and effectively governed.
Her 44 years of role are regarded as a time of piece, stability and prosperity, but also some problems. One of the greatest threats was Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic with the support of France, who returned to Scotland in 1561 and was imprisoned and forced to abdicate by the newly Protestant Scotland. In 1587, she was found guilty of conspiring against Elizabeth and executed. When Queen Elizabeth I died unmarried and without children in 1603, Mary's son, King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England, in a personal union of crowns.
The Tudor period is generally regarded positively by historians. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England and a personal union with the Kingdom of Ireland was established. The population doubled to 4 million people and stimulated economic growth, especially commerce. On the other hand, the gap between the rich and the poor widened.
The House of Tudor and the era of their reign is very popular today. You can watch several series and films about the important people of this period and, although they are usually not historically accurate, you can still learn something about the era and its people. The Tudors are a seried following the life of King Henry VIII and his six wives. There are two fillms called The other Boleyn about Mary Boleyn, the sister of Anne. There are two films about Queen Elizabeth I, Elizabeth from 1998 and The Golden Age from 2007. The series Reign follows the life of Mary, Queen of Scots.
The Jacobean Era refers to the reign of King James I, of the Scottish House of Stuart. The Union of Crowns meant that the four countries were still independent kingdoms, which shared the same monarch in a personal union. Under his reign, the colonisation of the Americas and the Plantation of Ulster, the colonisation of northern Ireland, began.
His son, King Charles I was perceived as a tyrannical absolute monarch and was unpopular. In 1642, the English Civil War began, a series of counflicts between Parliamentarians and Royalists. Charles I was defeated, imprisoned and in 1649 executed for high treason and the monarchyy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared.
In 1653, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector and the Protectorate lasted until 1659, under his son, Richard Cromwell. In 1660, the monarchy was restored, King Charles II succeeded his father and became a very popular king, often called the Merry Monarch. His reign is also called Restoration period, but he had no children and was succeeded by his brother, King James II, who was deposed in the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
The Dutch William III, Prince of Orange, Jameses's son-in-law, became king and his wife Mary became his joint sovereign. During his reign, the transituion to a more Parliamnet-centred rule began. He was succeeded by Queen Anne, daughter of King James II, who united England and Scotland into a single sovereign state by the Acts of Union in 1707 and became the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland. She was the last monarch of the House of Stuart.
In 1714, King George I, of the House of Hanover, became the new monarch and during his reign, the power of the king diminished, the state became governed by a modern system of cabinet government with a Prime Minister. With the Acts of Union in 1800, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland were united into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801.
After a period of weak and unpopular monarchs, King William IV reigned from 1830 to 1837, after the death of his older brothers he became king at the age of 64. He reformed the kingdom, the poor law was updated, child labour restricted, slavery abolished in the British Empire and the electoral system reformed. He was the last male monarch of the House of Hanover and he was succeeded by his niece, Queen Victoria.
Alexandrina Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, the fourth son of King George III, and the last monarch of the House of Hanover. She inherited the throne at the age of 18 and became a national icon identified with strict standarts of personal morality. She became Queen Victoria in 1837 and reigned for 63 years, this period is called the Victorian Era, marked by a great expansion of the British Empire, and was a time of industrial, scientific, cultural, political and military change within the UK. Queen Victoria is portrayed extensively in popular culture, a new series called Victoria started in 2016.
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and had nine children. Before the Victorian Era, brides wore many colours to their ceremony and royal brides typically wore heavy brocaded gowns, usually red. Victoria wore a white lace dress at her wedding, which then became very popular. They were very happy together, Victoria fell in love and Albert became her important political adviser. After her husband's death in 1861, she mourned deeply, wore black for the rest of her life and avoided public appearances.
In 1840, she married her first cousin
Queen Victoria reigned until 1901, when she died at the age of 81. A modern constitutional monarchy was gradually established during her time, the power of the House of Commons was increased and the voting system was reformed. The monarch became a symbolic figure and emphasis was put on morality and family values of the royal family.
Culturally, this period was the time of romanticism and even mysticism, many occult orders were founded. Literature flourished and especially Irish writers, such as GB Shaw, WB Yeats or Oscar Wilde, are popular even today. English authors of this era known today are the Brönte sisters, Charles Dickens or Lewis Carrol.
Population grew rapidly, in 1901, England and Wales had more than 30,5 million people, and Scotland's population also doubled to 4,4 million people. Ireland's population, on the other hand, decreased sharply to less than 4,5 million, because in 1845, it was hit by a potato blight, which became known as the Great Famine. In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated.
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes from about 1760s to 1840s. This meant mechanization of production with the use of steam power and new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes and brought the rise of the factory system and the development of machine tools. This revolution began in the UK and many technological innovations were of British origin. The UK became the world's leading commericial nation, controlling a glogal trading empire with colonies.
Domestic political agenda became increasingly liberal. Two main political parties were the liberal Whigs and the Conservatives, and at the end of the century, Labour Party gained prominence too. From 1853 to 1856, the Crimean War against the Russian Empire in the Balkans was one of the first conflicts to use modern technologies. It became an iconic symbol of failures and mismanagement and raised the demand for professionalisation, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale.
Socially, the Victorian Era was torn between two opposites. The upper class enjoyed luxury, political influence and security and the middle class flourished, raising to political pover and financial eminence. The lower class, on the other hand, had great problems, such as poverty, harsh factory conditions, bad housing, poor sanitation, excessive drinking and prostitution. Under the Elementary Education Act 1870, basic State Education became free for every child under the age of ten.
Women had to lead a domestic life and focus on the family and moral behaviour, while men dealt with the public domain, including paid work and political influence. The image of a woman as a fragile creature and strict separation of gender roles came from this period. Women were also not allowed to vote and the first public meeting regarding their suffrage was held in Manchester's Free Trade Hall in 1868.
In 1910, George V became king, he and his wife Queen Mary started the new trend of hard working and popular British royalty with middle-class values and virtues. The era was prosperous, but many political crises started, with serious social instability from the Irish crisis, poor work conditions and women's suffrage movement. Problems were especially in Ireland, where the Home Rule Crisis started in 1912 and culminated in the Easter Rising of 1916, which was brutally suppressed.
On 4th August 1914, the King declared war on Garmany and Austria and the rest of the British Empire followed into World War I. It became a part of the Triple Entente with France and Russia and fought the Central Powers of Germany, Austria and the Ottoman Empire. More than 850 thousand British people died in the conflict, and also because of the Spanish flu pandemic. The war radically changed the British Empire and the war generation is known as the Lost Generation.
At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the League of Nation was formed and a new era began. Heavy financial reparations were imposed on the countries which lost the war and many political and social changes started all over the world. Some women gained the right to vote in 1918, all women can vote since 1928. The war resulted in pessimism and started a new era, Modernism and the Roaring Twenties. Many countries adopted the politics of pacifism and appeasement.
In 1918, the Irish Sinn Féin party won elections in Ireland and formed the First Dáil parliament in Dublin. A declaration of independence was ratified in 1919 an the Anglo-Irish War started. In 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty established the Irish Free State and six northern and mostly Protestant counties became Northern Ireland. In 1927, Britain was oficially renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In 1929, the Great Depression originated in the US and quickly spread to the world. This lead to the rise of dictators, such as Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. In 1939, Germany invaded Poland and the Second World War broke out. In 1940, Sir Winston Churchill became Prime Minister and the air Battle of Britain was fought and won by the Royal Air Force. British forces played an important role in the Normandy landings of 1944.
In 1945, the war ended and Britain was one of the Big Four powers who met to plan the post-war world. For Britain, decolonisation started and the Empire was slowly transformed into the Commonwealth. The politics shifted towards social juctice and the National Health Service was created. Slowly, Britain lost its influence over the world and the US and Russia became the dominand superpowers.
Violence returned to Ireland in the 1960s and British troops were deployed in Northern Ireland. On 30th January 1972, Bloody Sunday took place in Bogside, Derry, where 28 civilians were shot or injured by soldiers. The incident became one of the most significant events of the Troubles, which oficially ended with the Good Friday Agreement of 1998.
Margaret Thatcher, called the Iron Lady, was the Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990, the longest serving Prime Minister of the 20th century. The Falklands War was a 10 week long, undeclared conflict between the UK and Argentina over the dependent territories in South Atlantic in 1982, which resulted in British victory.
In 1992, the UK became one of the 12 founding member of the European Union. In 2016, almost 52% of voters in the UK voted to leave the European Union. Since 1997, the laubourist government began the devolution of the UK, when devolved governments were created for Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. In 2014, Scotland rejected the proposal of becoming an independent country in a referendum, by a margin of approximately 55% to 45%.
British literature is mostly written in the English language and the UK is one of the largest publishers of books in the world. Famous British authors include Christopher Marlowe, Geoffrey Chauces, Sir Thomas More, Daniel Defoe, Jane Austen, Mary Shelley, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell, Ian Fleming, JRR Tolkien, Neil Gaiman, Arthur Conan Doyle, Robert Louis Stevenson, Oscar Wilde, Bram Stoker and GB Shaw.
William Shakespeare was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the greatest dramatist in the world. He wrote 39 plays, 154 sonnets and two long narrative poems. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and moved to London, where he owned a playing company called the King's Men. He is mostly known for his tragedies, for example Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. His best known comedies are A Midsummer Night's Dream, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and The Merchant of Venice. He also wrote history plays focused on the reigning monarchs, especially about the Hundrd Years War and the Wars of Roses, including King John, Richard II and Henry VIII.
British music varies in style from indigenous folk music to modern styles. The UK is home to the world-renowned symphonic orchestras and choruses, such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Some notable composers include Mike Oldfield, Clint Mansell and David Arnold. Promonent British bands include The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin and The Who. Some of the most famous interprets are Elton John, David Bowie, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse and Adele.
The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. Their best-known lineup comprised of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time and they revolutionised many aspects of the music industry. The band broke up in 1970 and John Lennon was shot in 1980. Their most famous songs are Love Me Do, A Hard Day's Night, Let It Be, Yesterday and Hey Jude.
British cinema had a considerable influence on the history of films. The golden age of the cinema in the UK was in the 1930s and 1940s with directors such as David Lean. Some of the most famous British actors include Maggie Smith, Roger Moore, Michael Caine, Sean Connery, Judi Denchm Gary Oldman and Kate Winslet. Some of the worlds highest grossing franchises are also British, including Harry Pottern and James Bond. Today, the most famous directors are Christopher Nolan, Ridley Scott and Alfred Hitchcock. The annual BAFTA awards hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts are considered to be the British equivalent of the Academy Awards.
Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin was an English comic actor, filmmaker and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona the Tramp and is considered one of the most important figures in the hostory of film industry. His greatest films include The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times and The Great Dictator.
British cuisine is the heritage of cooking traditions and practises, both rich in indigenous tradition and enriched by colonial history. Food rationing policies during wartime periods are widely considered today to be responsible for the poor international reputation of the British cuisine. Some well-known traditional British dishes include the full breakfast, fish and chips, the Christmas dinner, the Sunday roast, shephard's pie, Haggis, cawl, Ulster fry and banglers and mash. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine.
Gin is a distilled alcohlic drink that derived its predominant flavour from juniper berries. It used to be a midicinal liquor made by monks in Italy and was introduces in England in the 17th century. It was cheap and became popular with poor people very quickly. It was blamed for various social problems and gained negative reputation.
Its population is over 56 million, which is 84% of the UK, and the caputal and the biggest city is London. Other main cities include Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, Portsmouth, Bradford, Southampton, Newcastle upon Tyne, Nottingham, Sheffield, Bristol and Brighton&Hove. Other important cities include Oxford, Cambridge, Bath, Canterbury, Coventry, Salisbury, York and Stratford-upon-Avon.
English folklore is very rich and region-specific. The legend of Robin Hood and the Merry Men of Sherwood is very famous. The story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is also set in England, although it is of Norman and Welsh sources. Other folk figures include Lady Godiva, Guy Fawkes and the pirate Blackbeard. England has a lot of famous artists, English writers include William Shakespeare, Geoffrey Chaucer, Mary Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth.
Its economy is one of the largest in the world, it is highly industrialized. There is an increasing emphasis on service industry oriented economy and tourism. England exports pharmaceuticals, cars, such as Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley, crude oil and petroleum, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages. Traditional companies are also Rolls-Royce, Twinings and Cadbury confectionary.
England's terrain is mainly low hills and plains, but there are mountains in the north, for example the Pennies and the Lake District, and the west, for example Dartmoor. Main English rivers are Thames, Mersey, Tyne and Severn. There are many lakes in England, especially in the Lake District where the highes mountain is located, Scafell Pike with 978 metres. The climate is temperate and maritime, with mild temperature changes, but changeable weather and frequent rain.
Oxford is a city in south central England with a population of 155 thousand, and metropolitan area with 244 thousand people. The area was settled in Anglo-Sason times and it was called Oxenaforda. It is called the City of Dreaming Spires, which comes from a poem by Matthew Arnold. The city was an important port and rivers Cherwell and Thames, locally called Isis, flow though the city.
The city is the home of the University of Oxford, the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is said to be founded in 1096, which makes it the second oldest university in operation. It has numerous major tourist attractions and is currently ranked as the world's number one university. In 1209, after a dispute between students and tawnsfolk, some academics fled to Cambridge and established a new university. A total of 69 Nobel Laureates and 27 British Prime Ministers studied or taught at Oxford University.
Christ Church is a college of the university, founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. It has a number of architectually significant buildings, including Tom Tower designed by Sir Christopher Wren, the Great Dining Hall and Tom Quad. The buildings have inspired many replicas and were featured in the Herry Potter films.
The Radcliffe Camera was opened in 1749 to house the Radcliffe Science Library. It was funded from the estate of John Radcliffe, a notable doctor. It was later merged with the Bodleian Library of the university and the Camera became a reading room.
Cambridge is a university city on the River Cam, in south central England. The population is 125 thousand people, the metropolitan area has about 280 thousand inhabitants. The area was settled in the Bronze age and became important during the Roman age. Today, the city is the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen region, with industries based on electronics and software, bioscience and also many start-up companies.
The world-renowned University of Cambridge was founded in 1209, which makes it the second oldest university in the English-speaking world. The two ancient universities are sometimes referred to as Oxbridge. It is ranked as the second best university in the world and, in 2011, there were about 25 thousand students in the city. It has educated 118 Nobel Laureates and 15 British Prime Ministers. Cambridge University Press is the world's oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world.
King's College lies beside the River Cam and faces out onto King's Parade. It was founded in 1441 and the building of the emblematic King's College Chapel was finished in 1544 by Henry VIII. It is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the largest fan vault in the world.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, 3km from Amesbury. It consists of a ring of standing stones around 4m high and 2m wide and weighting around 25 tons. Archeologists believe it was constructed from 3000BC to 2000BC and the earliest phase of the monument has been dated back to 3100BC. It is regarded as a British cultural icon and it is on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. It was produced by a culture that left no written records. The purpose of the stones and the way they were transported and erected, remain a subject to debate.
Stratford-upon-Avon is a market town north west of London with a population of 27 thousand people. It is a popular tourist destination as the birthplace of William Shakespeare. The Royal Shakespeare Compan resides in the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in the city. The route of the Historic Spine begins at Shakespeare's Birthplace in Henley Street. It continues to Bridge Street and High Street, where many Elizabethan buildings are located, including Harvard House. There are many other historical streets and houses, such as the Old Town, Nash's House, Hall's Croft and the Holy Trinity Church.
Windsor is a historic market town with about 32 thousand inhabitants, located 35km from London, south of the River Thames. The town is about a thousand years old and William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed there. It is a popular tourist destination, many famous people live there and near the town is the only Legoland park in the UK. Across the river, there is its twin town Eton a historic town connected to it by Windsor Bridge. In 1440, Henry VI chose it as the location of his new college. The town is more commercial than residential, only 2,3 thousand people live there, but there are many businesses.
Windsor Castle is a royal residence notable for its association with the royal family and its architecture. Since the 12th century, it was used by the reigning monarch and is therefore the longest occupied palace in Europe. It was enlarged and reconstructed several times and became the most expensive secular building of the Middle Ages in England. It was used as a royal court, miliraty headquarters and even as a refuge for the royal family during WWII.
Eton College is an independent boarding school and fixth form for boys between the ages of 18 and 18. It was founded by Henry VI in 1440 and is now one of the original nine public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. It is one of four remaining schools only for boys and it is very expensive, up to more than £13000 per term, with three term per academic year. About 1300 pupils study here every year in 25 houses and they wear traditional uniforms, a black tailcoat and a black waistcoat, a starched stiff collar and pinstriped trousers.
Salisbury is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, at the confluence of five rivers, Avon, Ebble, Nadder, Wylye and Bourne. The population is about 40 thousand people, with an urban area of about 62 thousand people. The city is only 13km from Stonehenge and therefore a great tourist attraction. Is it an important centre of music since the 18th century and has a strong artistic community.
Salisbury Cathedral is great example of English architecture from the 13th century and with 123m has the tallest church spire in the UK. Its clock is one of the oldest working clocks in the world. Aso, the cathedral houses the best surviving of the four original copies of Magna Carty.
Manchester is the third most populous urban area in the UK, with 545 thousand inhabitants of the city and 3,2 million people in the metropolitan area. It became a major city because of textile manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution, it was the first industrial city in the world. It lies on the River Irwell and River Mersey and is famous for many red brick buildings. Is is known as a city of sport, with two decorated Premier League football clubs, Manchester United and Manchester City.
Liverpool is the fifth largest urban area in the UK, with 491 thousand inhabitants in the city and 2,24 million people in the metropolitan area. The city is on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and grew as a port during the Industrial Revolution. It is a popular tourist destination thanks to many bands from the area, especially the Beatles. It is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, and the Grand National horse race.
Bath is the largest city in the county of Somerset, with a population of 89 thousand people. The city is known for its Roman built baths and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It became a spa in 60AD when the Romans built baths and a temple in the valey of the River Avon, although the hot springs were known before then.
Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre. It used to be a Benedictine minastery which was dissolved but the cathedral is still functional.
The Roman Baths complex is a well preserved historical site once used for public bathing. They are below the modern street level and have four main features, the Sacred Spring, the Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House and the museum. Wisitors can tour the baths but are not allowed in the water.
The Royal Crescent is a row of 30 terraced houses laid out in a sweeping crescent. It is 150m long and one of the grestes examples of Georgian architecture in the UK. In was finished in 1774 and many notable people lived or stayed there.
York is a historic walled city in North Yorkshire at the confluence of River Ouse and Floss. York Castle is a fortified complex nuw in ruins, the most known part is Clifford's Tower, a Norman castle. The Abbey of St Mary is a ruined Benedictine abbey, which used to be the richest in England. York Minster is a cathedral, one of the largest of its kind in Europe, and its Great East Window is the largest expanse of mediaeval stained glass in the world. The Shambles is an old street with overhanging timber framed buildings dating back as far as the 14th century.
The Jurassic Coast is a 154km long English Channel coast which spans 185 million years of geological history. There are many different types of rock and fossils, especially ammonites. There are many iconic natural landmarks in the area, which is an UNESCO World Heritage Site. The White Cliffs of Dover are 110m high chalk and black flint cliffs, which are 13km long. Durdle Door is a natural limestone arch near Lulworth, ownwd privately by the Weld family. Old Harry Rocks are three chalk formations located at Handfast Point, on the Isle of Purbeck in Dorset.
Hardian's Wall is a defensive fortification built by Romans to defend their province, Britannia. The construction begun in AD122 and marked the northern limit of the Roman Empire. It has a stone base and stone walls and there were milecastles and watchtowers, and a larger fort every five Roman miles. A significant portion of the wall still stands ans is the largest Roman archeological feature. The Wall is regarded as a British cultural icon and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It lies entirely in England and has never formed the Anglo-Scottish border.
The Lake District, also called Lakeland, is a mountainous region in north west England. It is a popular holiday destination and it is associated with a group of artists known as the Lake Poets. In 1951, a National Park was established in the area which later became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The highest mouintain of England, Scaffel Pike, is located within the Park. The District contains the deepest and largest natural lakes in England, West Water and Windermere.
The Lake Poets all lived in the Lake District in the first half of the 19th century. They are considered part of the Romantic Movement. Three main figures of the group are William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey. Wordsworth even wrote the Guide to the Lakes, a travellers' guidebook to the District.
Coventry is a city near Birmingham, known for its car production. The current Coventry Cathedral was built after the majority of the 14th century church of St Michael was destroyed by the Luftwaffe in the Coventry Blitz of 14th November 1940.
Brighton is a seaside rosort on the south coast of England and part of the city of Brighton and Hove. The city developed under the patronage of Prince Regent and lated King George IV, who spent much time in the town. Today, it is a major tourist destination and a holiday resort.
The Royal Pavilion is a former royal residence built between 1787 and 1811 in the Indo-Saracenic style. The current appearance is the work of architect John Nash, who extended the building. Queen Victoria disliked it and sold it to the city in 1820. It is a somewhat controversial building, but a major tourist attraction. It was changed from a private residence to a public attraction, especially for weddings.
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city on the River Stour. The heart of the city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the primate of the Church of England and the sity cathedral became a major focus of pilgrimage following the martyrdom of Thomas Becket in 1170. The journey to the city is the frame to Geofrey Chaucer's 14th century classic The Canterbury Tales.
Canterbury Cathedral is one of the oldest and most famous in England. It was founded in 597 and rebuilt into a cathedral in 1077 and into the Gothic style a century later. Thomas Becket was an archbishop who was murdered in the cathedral, where his shrine is until today. Before the Reformation, the cathedral was part of a Benedictine monastic community until the abbey was dissolved. Becket's shrine was destroyed on the orders of Henry VII and his relics were lost.
Wales, called Cymru in Weslh, is a country that is a part of the UK, it is located to the west of England and it is often called the Land of Castles. Since the Middle Ages, it was unified with the Kingdom of England and the lords of Wales were electing members of the Parliament in Westminster. Today, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for Welsh matters.
The flag of Wales contains a red dragon passant on a green and white field. The dragon was a symbol of Cadwaladr, King of Gwynedd in the 7th century. The white and green are Tudor colours and the flag was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. The dragon was then used as a supporter of the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognized as the Welsh national flag in 1959.
The daffodil and the leek are both symbols of Wales. The confusion comes from the Welsh language, where the leek is called cenhinen and the daffodil is called cenhinen Bedr, St Peter's leek. The national anthem is Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, Land of My Fathers. The patron saint of Wales is St David, a Welsh bishop from the 6th century.
Welsh national identity emerged after the Roman withdrawal in the 5th century. Throughout the Middle Ages, the east and south of the country were constantly under atttack by the English, who conquered parts of Wales. In 1216, Llywelyn Fawr received a pledge of allegiance of the other lords of Wales and became the first Prince of Wales. The whole country was annexed by England and incorporated under the Laws in Wales Act 1535 and 1542. Welsh national feeling grew since the 19th century and Plaid Cymru a a political party founded in 1925.
The population is about 3,1 million people, which is only about 4,7 % of the total population of the UK. Most people live in South Wales, in big cities such as Cardiff, Swansea and Newport and the nearby valleys. In Wales, there is the villege with the longest name in the world, Llanfairpellgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch. Majority of the population speaks English as their first language, but the country has retained its distinct cultural identity. Wales is officially bilingual, the Welsh Language Society was founded in 1962 and over 562 thousand people speak Welsh. The University College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth in 1872 and Cardiff and Bangor soon followed, in 1893, they formed the University of Wales.
It has a distinctive culture, including its own customs, holidays and music. Welsh cuisine is very specific and it traditionally uses lamb meat. There are three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Wales, the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd, Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and the Blaenavon Industrial Landscape. Celtic mythology was passed down orally for generatins and some of the oldest Welsh books include the earliest forms of the Arthurian legends. The best known medieval writer was Geoffrey of Monmouth, who wrote in Latin about history.
Dylan Thomas was a 20th century writer, author of the famous poem Do not go gentle into that good night and a short story collection Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog. Wales is referred to as the Land of the Song and is notable for harpists and choirs, a popular Welsh band today is Bullet for My Valentine. Most recognized Welsh actors are Anthony Hopkins, John Rhys-Davies, Ioan Gruffudd, Michael Sheen and Catherine Zeta-Jones.
The economy of extractive and heavy industiries is in decline, the mining and expoer of coal used to be the dominant industry. Now, it focuses on the public sector, service industries and tourism. The country's poor quality of soil is unsuitable for crops and the land is mostly used for pasture. Livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture, it is mostly known for sheep farms. In 2008, Wales made history by becoming the first nation to be awarded Fairtrade Status.
Wales has over 2700km of coastline and is largely mountains, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas. The highest mountain is Snowdon with 1085m, called Yr Wyddfa in Welsh, and it is located in Snowdonia. Main rivers are Dee, Clwyd, Teifi, Towy, Wye, Usk and Severn. The country lies within the temperate zone and has changeable, maritime climate. Over 50 islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest is Anglesey in the north-west. Wales ha three national parks, Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire Coast.
Cardiff is the capital of Wales and its largest city with the population of 362 thousand and an urban area of 479 thousand. Is is a chief commercial centre and the seat of the National Assembly for Wales. It was a small town until the 19th century, but became prominent as a major port for the transport of coal. John Crichton-Stuart, 2nd Marquess of Bute, spent his life building the city docks and became known as the creator of modern Cardiff. It was proclaimed the capital in 1955 and is now a popular tourist destination.
In 1081, William the Conqueror began work on the castle keep within the walls of the old Roman fort. The Cardiff Castle became the heart of the city and was extended during the Victorian period. The Victorian Gothic revival mansion is the main range of the castle today.
The Senedd, also known as the Nationa Assembly building, houses the debating chamber and three committee rooms for the National Assembly for Wales. It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 2006 as the third building for the Asslembly. Ty Hywel, previously Crickhowell House, houses the Assembly Members and their staff and the Welsh Government. The Pierhead Building in Cardiff Bay is one of the most familiar landmarks of the city.
Snowdonia is a mountainous region in northwestern Wales and a national park. It contains the highest peaks in the UK outside of Scotland. It is one of the wettest parts of the UK and it is very important as a conservation of habitat and wildlife.
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct carries the Llangollen Canal across the River Dee. The structure was completed in 1805 and serves special narrow boats. It is the highest canal aqueduct in the world, it is 307m long, 3,7m wide and 38m high.
Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd includes the Castles of Beaumaris and Harlech and the castles and town walls of Caernarfon and Conwy. These are considered the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th centuy military architecture. They were built by Edward I after his invasion of North Wales in 1282.
Scotland is a country that covers the north third of the island of Great Britain. The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. Scotland has a separete legal system from the rest of the UK and many other institutions are distinct for the country. It is also governed by the unicameral Scottish Parliament, which has authority over domestic policy.
The first Roman incursion into Scotland occured in 79AD. Two great walls, Hadrian's Wall and Antonine Wall, were built to protect the Roman territories from the tribes residing in Scotland. The Romans introduced Christianity and influence the southern regions significantly. The Scottish nation emerged in the 12th century with the unification of the state. Scots spoke Gaelic, but many English speaking colonist came to Scotland in the Middle Ages. The greatest ally of the kingdom was France, starting with the Auld Alliance in 1295.
Scotland fought fiercely with England and defended its indepencedce for centuries. In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath, was the world's first declaration of independence. The most famous reigning family is the House of Stuart, the most famous ruler is Mary, Queen of Scots. In 1603, James VI, King of Scots, inherited the thrones of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland in the Union of Crowns. In 1707, the Acts of Union created the Kingdom of Great Britain and Scotland lost its independence completely. In 2014, only 55% people voted against the Scottish independence in a referendum.
In the 18th century, the country went through the Scottish Enlightenment which brought many cultural and scientific enrichments. Scotland has four universities from the 15th and 16th century, St Andrews in Fife and universities in Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation's culture and the traditional istrument is the Great Highland bagpipe.
The most famous Scottish authors are Walter Scott, Roberst Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns, Arthur Conan Doyle, JK Rowling and Irvine Welsh. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin and won the Nobel Prize in Medicine. William Wallace was a famous independence leader and Rob Roy was a famous outlaw, they are both considered national heroes. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and James Watt created an efficient steam engine. Famous Scots actors include Sean Connery, James McAvoy, Ewan McGregor and Tilda Swinton.
St Andrew was a Christian Apostle and the brother of St Peter. Several legends say that his remains were brought to Scotland in the 8th century. In 832, King Óengus II led an army of Picts and Scots into battle agains the Angles and won by divine intervention. The clouds formed an X shape, which was interpreted as the symbol of St Andrew's crucifiction. The saint was appointed the patron of Scotland and a white cross against blue background became the flag of the country. The 30th November is St Andrew's Day and it is a bank holiday in Scotland.
Scotland has no national anthem, but several songs are played to represent the country. The thistle is a national emblem of Scotland and the national animal is a unicorn. There are many traditional products, such as the traditional meal Haggis and Scotch whisky. Tartan is a specific woven textile pattern that often signifies a particular Scottish clan, as featured on a kilt.
A kilt is a traditional attire of the Scots, made of woollen cloth in a tartan pattern. It is a type of a knee-length skirt with pleats in the back. It originated as a traditional dress of Gaelic men in the Scottish Highlands in the 16th century. The modern kilt is worn since the 18th century, it is essentially the bottom half of the old great kilt. It is most often worn on formal occasions, in combination with a tuxedo.
The population of Scotland is more than 5,4 million people, which is about 8,2% of the total UK population. Most people live in Central Lowlands, between Glasgow and Edinburgh, other major cities are Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen. On the other hand the Highlands have a very low population density. Scotland has three officially recognized languages, English, Scots and Scottish Gaelic. Gaelic is mostly spoken in the Hebrides and in the Highlands, while Scots is concentrated in the Lowlands. The Church of Scotland, called the Kirk, is the national churtch of the country, it is a protestant church and more than 24% of Scots claim allegiance to it.
Scotland is about the size of the Czech Republic and it borders with England between the basin of the River Tweed and the Solway Firth. The landscape was much affected by glaciation and can be divided into three parts. The Highlands and the Islands are mostly mountains, with Ben Nevis as the highest point of the UK. There are four main groups of islands, Shetlands, Orkneys, and the Inner and Outer Hebrides. Central Lowlands used to be volcanically active and are significant for bearing coal and iron rocks. The Southern Uplands are mostly hills, with the highest village in the UK, Wanlockhead at 430m. The temperate oceanic climate is warmed by the Gulf Stream, so it is much warmer than areas with similar latitudes. The main rivers are Clyde, Spey and Tweed.
Traditionally, the economy has been dominated by heavy industry, such as coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries have been important since the 1970s, but today, the country is more service oriented. Edinburgh is the financial centre, with many large finance firms based in the city. Scotland primarily exports whisky, electronics and financial services and it holds 95% of the UK oil and gas reserves.
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland since at leasr the 15th century. It is the seat of the Scottinsh Governmant, the Scottish Parliament, the supreme courts of Scotland and many national institutions. It is the second largest financial centre in the UK and also the second most popular tourist destination. The Locality of Edinburgh has the population of 464 thousand people, and the city region estimates a population of more than 1,3 million people, which makes it the second largest city in Scotland. Old Town and New Town are listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites.
The Palace of Holyrood is the official residence of the British monarch in Scotland. It is located at the bottom of the Royal Mile, at the opposite end to the Edinburgh Castle. It has served as the principal residence of the Kings of Scots since the 16th centur
y. Queen Elizabeth II spends one week in residence at the Palace at the beginning of each summer.
Edinburgh Castle is a historic fortress on the Castle Rock which dated to the 12th century. It used to be a royal residence until 1633, but is was later used as military barracks with a large garrison. As one of the most important strongholds in the Kingdom of Scotland, it was involved in many historical conflicts and it is a part of the national heritage. It is said to be the most besieged place in Great Britain and one of the most attacked in the world. The castle houses the Scottish regalia and the National War Museum of Scotland.
The churches of St Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate ate also part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. St Giles' Cathedral, also known as the High Kirk of Edinburgh. is the principal place of worship pf the Church of Scotland.
Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills in Edinburgh which form most of Holyrood Park. It is 250m high and 1,6km far from Edinburgh Castle. It is very popular for walks and not difficult to climb and the views are beautiful.
The Highlands is a historic region of Scatland, which diverged from the Lowlands in the Middle Ages. The Scottish Gaelic name, A' Gháidhealtacht, means the place of the Gaels. The area is very sparsely populated, with many mountain ranges dominating the region. The area has a taiga biome and features a concentrated population of Scots pine. The administrative centre and the traditional capital is Inverness.
Ben Nevis in the Lochaber area is the highes mountain in the British Isles. The summit is a collapsed dome of an ancient volcano and features the ruins of an observatory.
Loch Ness is a large, deep, freshwater loch southwest of Inverness. It is best known for the alleged sightings of the cryptozoological Loch Ness Monster, known as Nessie. It is the second largest loch by surface area, but the largest loch by volume, and the second deepest loch in Scotland. Urquhart Castle lies on the bank of the loch, its ruins are dated between the 13th and the 16th centuries. It is one of the largest in Scotland and it was permanently destroyed in 1692.
The Glenfinnan Viaduct is a railway viaduct on the West Highland Line, located on top of Loch Shiel and the Glenfinnan Monument. With 380m, it is the longest concrete railway bridge in Scotland. It crosses the river Finnan at a height on 30m and was opened in 1901, after four years of construction.
Eilean Donan is a small tidal island where three sea lochs meet, Loch Duich, Loch Long and Loch Alsh. A beautiful castle known from pictures dominates the island, which lies near the village Dornie. The castle originates from the 13th century and was restored in the early 20th century, after it was destroyed in 1719.
Smoo Cave is a large combined sea cave and freshwater cave in Durness in Sutherland. It is unique for the combination of forces that created it. It has three parts, an entrance chamber, a waterfall chamber and a short freshwater passage which leads to a terminal sump chamber.
Glasgow is the most populous city in Scotland and the third mous populous city in the UK. It is situated on the River Clyde in the Lowlands. The inhabitants are referred to as Glaswegians or Weegies, and there are 621 thousand of them, with a metropolitan area of 1,65 million people.
The Antonine Wall was a wooden turf fortification on stone foundations, built by the Romans across the Central Belt of Scotland.It was 63km long, 3m high and 5m wide and its ruins are not so evident today. Its construction began in 142AD and took 12 years, it was abandoned in the 3rd century.
The Isle of Skye is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides. The population is abozt 10 thousand people and the capital and the largest settlement is Portree. The Cuillin is a range of rocky mountains which are considered a national scenic area.
Fingal's Cave is a sea cave on the uninhabited island of Staffa, in the Inner Hebrides. In is part of the national treasure reserve and it is known for its acoustics. It is formed entirely from hexagonally joined basalt columns from a cooled lava flow.
National Wallace Monument is a tower standing on the shoulder of the Abbey Craig, a hilltop overlooking Stirling. It commemorates Sir William Wallace, a 13th century Scottish hero. It was constructed after a fundraising campaign in the 19th century, as part of the resurgence of Scottish national identity. A number of artefacts believed to have belonged to Wallace are on display, including the Wallace Sword, which is 1,63m long and weights almost 3kg.
Sir William Wallace was a Scottish knight who became one of the leaders during the First War of Scottish Independence. He defeated an English army at the battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. In 1305, he was captured and King Edward I had him hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason. He is a Scottish national icon and the film Braveheart starring Mel Gibson is about him.
Northern Ireland, also called Ulster or the Province, is a part of the UK in the north-east of the island of Ireland. Is shares a border with the Republic of Ireland. It was created in 1921, when the island was partitioned between Northern Ireland and Souther Ireland by the Government of Ireland Act. Since 1998, it is governed by an Assembly and it has its own government and legislation for the matters of the country.
The official flag of Northern Ireland is de jure the Union Jack, however, the Ulster Banner is used by the goverment. On the other hand, St Patrick's Saltire is used to represent Northern Ireland in the Union Jack and is used to represent the country during royal events. Saint Patrick is the Patron saint of Ireland and he is known as the apostle of Ireland. He was a Christian missionary in the 5th century and there are many legends about him, for example, that he banished snakes from the island. St Patrick's Day, celebrated on 17th March, is a public holiday in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland. Shamrock is another symbol of Ireland, also connected to St Patrick. One of the most popular musical instruments is the Irish harph, which represents the immortality of the soul. Also, many Celtic symbols were adopted by the Irish and the flax plant was chosen as the logo of the Assembly. There is no official anthem, but several songs are played in sports events, such as Londonderry Air or Ireland's Call.
Gaelic Ireland was a political structure on the island of Ireland which emerged in the 2nd century. Catholicism arrived to Ireland in the 4th century and has a significant cultural impact. Normans invaded the country in 1169 and started conquering the island. Gaelic Ireland was defeated in the battle of Kinsale in 1601 and definitively became part of the British Empire.
Since the 17th century, a conflict arose between the Protestant British minority who had power and the Catholic Irish majority. In 1801, after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Irish Parliament was abolished and the country became oficially part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1845, Great Famine struck Ireland and more than a million people died of starvation. Many Irish people started to immigrate, especially to America, and the population country decreased.
In the 20th century, the problems escalated. In 1916, Easter Rising was an armed conflict to end British rule over Ireland and start a republic. From 1919 to 1921, the Irish War of Independence was fought which resulted in a declaration of Irish independence in 1921.
The majority of population of Northern Ireland were unionists, Protestant descendants of colonists from England, and they wanted to remain part of the UK. In 1922 the Irish Free State was created from Southern Ireland, where the majority were Catholic nationalists, demanding Irish independence. For the rest of the 20st century, the two groups fought each other, engaging in violence and discrimination.
The Troubles was an ethno-nationalist conflict in Ireland which began in the 1960s and ended in the 1990s. In 1969, the conflict let to riots and British troops were deployed in Northern Ireland. This led to the emergence of paramilitary organisations and a guerilla war. IRA, the Provisional Irish Republican Army, was the most known participant of the conflict and it was seen by most as an unlawful terrorist organisation. More than 3500 people were killed in the conflict which ended with the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. IRA was disarmed and ended its campain in 2005.
Northern Ireland has a population of 1,9 million people, which is about 30% of the total island population. It consists of six historic counties which are no longer used, instead, there are eleven districts. English is the first language of almost everyone in the country, but Irish and Ulster Scots are recognized too. The main universities are Queen's University Belfast and Ulster University.
Culturally, Northern Ireland is as divided as politically. Parades are a prominent cultural feature of the Irish Protestants, which rises tensions with the Catholics. The Ulster Cycle is a large body of literature about eastern Ulster and one of the four major cycles of Irish mythology. It centres on the reign of Conchobar mac Nessa and the foremost hero is his nephew, Cúchulainn. There are also many popular Irish folk tales which feature Irish heroes and supernatural beings such as the Banshee.
There are many prominent artists and sportspeople from Northern Ireland, but the cultural links between the British and Irish are complex. For example, Liam Neeson prefers to call himself Irish, although he is from Northern Ireland and therefore British. Politically, the country is still divided between the unionists and the nationalists, represented by the Sinn Féin party.
Historically, Northern Ireland was the most industrialised part of Ireland. The economy declined because of the Troubles, but has grown significantly since the 1990s. Traditional industries include shipbuilding, rope manufacture and textilies, but most of the heavy industry was replaced by services.
The country consists mainly of low flats and hills, the highest mountain is Slieve Donard with 850m. Volcanic activity created the Antrim Plateau and many beautiful natural sightsThe largest freshwater lake of the UK is Lough Neagh, situated in the centre of the country. The main rivers are Bann, Erne and Foyle. The largest island is Rathlin. It is one of the least forested mart of Europe with only 8% of woodland. The weather is quite unpredictable and it is mostly overcast.
Belfast is a port city or River Lagan and the capital of Northern Ireland since 1922. With the population of 340 thousand people, 671 thousand in the metropolitan area, it is she largest city in Northern Ireland. The port played a major role in the Industrial Revolution when the city was the biggest linen producer in the world. Other key industries were tabacco-processing, rope-making and shipbuilding, today, there is also a major aerospace and missiles industry. The city suffered greatly during hte Troubles, but is now considered one of the safest in the UK.
Belfast Lough is a large, intertidal sea inlet on the east coast of Northern Ireland. It opens into the North Channel and connects Belfast to the Irish Sea.
Cave Hill, sometimes spelled Cavehill, is a basaltic hill oberlooking the city. It is distinguished by its Napoleon's Nose. All of Belfast can be seen from the peak and on clear days, even the Isle of Man and Scotland shore.
Belfast Castle is set on the slopes of Cavehill Country Park, in a prominent position of 120m above sea level. It has a beautiful view of the city and Belfast Lough. The original Norman castle from the 12th century was located in the city, but it burned down in 1708. The new castle was built between 1811 and 1870 in a Scottish baronial style. It was presented to the City of Belfast in 1934 and the Council began a major refurbishment. It was opened to public in 1988 and is popular for weddings and private dining receptions.
Stormont Estate is the site of the main government buildings, surrounded by parks and forests. Parliament Buildings, often called Stormont, are the seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly. Stormont Castle is a mansion used as the meeting place of the Northern Ireland Executive, the government.
RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on 15th April 1912 after colliding with an iceberg. There was an estimated 2224 passengers and crew onboard and more than 1500 died, including Thomas Andrews, the chief naval architect. It was the largest ship of its time and it was built in the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast.
Derry, officially Londonderry, is the second largest citi in Northern Ireland. The old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle and the population is about 85 thousand people, with 237 thousand in the metropolitan area. It is the only remaining completely intact walled city in Ireland.
Lough Neagh is the largest freshwater lake by area in the British Isles. It is located in the middle of Northern Ireland and it supplies 40% of Northern Ireland's water. It is 30km long and 15km wide, but not very deep, the maximum depth is 25m.
The Giant's Causeway is an area of about 40 thousand interlocking basalt columns which are the result of an ancient volcanic fissure eruption. It is located in the County Antrim, on the north coast, close to the town of Buchmills. It is an UNESCO World Heritage Site and a national treasure reserve. Most of the columns are hexagonal and the tallest are about 12m high. The solidified lava in the cliffs is 28m thick in places. According to legend, the columns are the remains of a causeway built by a giant.
The Marble Arch Caves are a series of natural limestone caves located near the village of Florencecourt in County Fermanagh. They are named afrer the nearby Marble Arch, a natural limestone arch at the Cladagh River. The caves are created by three rivers which emerge from the largest karst resurgence in Ireland. They are 11,5km long and therefore the longest known cave system in Northern Ireland.
Scrabo Tower is a 41m high lookout on Scrabo Hill near Newtownards in County Down. It was built as a memorial to Charles Vane, Marquess of Londonderry, and was originally known as Londonderry Monument. It is a fairytale-like tower built in Scottish Baronial Revival style and it offers beautiful views.
Mussenden Temple is a small circular building located on cliffs near Castlerock in County Londonderry. It was built in 1785 as a library and brough closer to the ocean by erosion of the cliffs.
Public schools in England and Wales are long-established, student-selective, fee-charging independent secondary schools. Traditionally, they were all-male boarding schools from age 11 to 18 associated with the ruling classes. The original nine and most known are Eton College, Harrow School, Merchant Taylors', St Paul's School, Rugby School, Westminster School, Charterhouse, Shrewsbury and Winchester College.
Eton College is near Windsor and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI. It is one of only four remaining boy school in the UK, the rest became co-educational. Many Prime Ministers and UK aristocrates were educated there, it is the sixth most expensive boarding school in the UK.
Science and Technology
England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century. The UK also led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century. The country produced many scientists and engineers credited with many important advances. Scientific research and development remains important in British universities. Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist and astronomer who is recognized as one on the most influential scientists of all time. His book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy was published in 1687 and laid foundations of classical mechanics. He formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that proved Kepler's theories and the Solar System's heliocentricity. He built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates white light into the colour of the visible spectrum. He studied at the University of Cambridge and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted. He introduced the concept of natural selection and explained the diversity of life. He is best known for his book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. He studied at the University of Cambridge and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Stephen William Hawking was an English theoretical physicist and cosmologist. He studied at both the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. In 1963, he was diagnosed with ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) that gradually maralysed him. He achieved success also in popular science with his book A Brief History of Time, published in 1988. His main work centred around the fields of general relativity and quantum gravity. He died in 2018 and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish physician and microbiologist. His pest known discoveries are the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the first broadly effective antibiotic substance benzylpenicillin in 1928. He shared the Nbel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945. He studied at the Imperial College London and he is buried in St Paul's Cathedral.
History
The earliest evidence of human occupation around 900 thousand years ago is documented by stone tools. The islands were permanently connected to the Continent by a chalk ridge unlil about 425 thousand years ago. The English Channel was created by a megaflood during the Anglican Glaciation. The islands were settled by anatomically modern humans about 30 thousand years ago. The climate was fierce, with several ice ages, and a permanent settlement occured around 11,7 thousand years ago.Historians still debate about the Insular Celtic settlement, which occured in the Bronze Age or the Iron Age, from about 2000BC to 400BC. They brought the Celtic language with them, which was split into two groups. Brittonic Celtic in Great Britain split into several dialects including Welsh and Cornish. Gaelic Celtic split into Irish in Ireland, Scottish Gaelic in Highland Scotland and Manx on the Isle of Man.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55BC and 54BC as part of the Gallic Wars. The Roman conquest began in 43AD and southern Britain became a part of the Roman Empire. In the 2nd century, two walls were built, the Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall. In 410AD, the Romans wthdrew from Britain.
In the 5th century, a series of invasions by Germanic-speaking groups occured. Three main tribes that settled Britain were Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who established seven principal kingdoms, called the Heptarchy. These people were fierce warriors who desired a glorios death in battle. The language spoken at this time is called Old English, developed from Anglo-Frisian or Ingvaeonic dialects. During the 7th century, these tribes were Christianised. There was also the constant threat of a Viking invasion from Scandinavia and the tribe of Danes even established Danelaw in north-east England in the 9th century.
In 1066, the Normans and their Breton allies invaded England from northern France. They were lead by William, the Duke of Normandy, who defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. He proclaimed himself King William I and built a system of castles. Scotland maintained its independence and was in constant conflict with England. The Normans brought with them feudalisation, Norman-French culture and language, Old Norman. In England, Anglo-Norman language developed, because Normans were the ruling class, and more than a century later, Middle English became the main language. Normans brought chivalry and courtship to England, they were noble knights with the ideal of a platonic love to a lady.
Magna Carta Libertatum, the Great Charter of the Liberties, is a charter of rights agreed to by King John of England in 1215. Two years later, it became a part of the Treaty of Lambeth and wasoften reissued and confirmed by Kings. It concerned the mediaeval relationship between the monarch and the barons and became an iconic document. Although more a legend than an actual constitution, it became a symbol of freedom.
The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were heavily involved in conflicts in France. The Kings of Scots were in alliance with the French, which brought further conflict. The Hundred Years' War, from 1337 to 1453, was a series of coflicts between the English House of of Plantagenet and French House of Valois over the right to rule the Kingdom of France.
Because of poor government and an economic crisis, a sequence of civil wars began over the English throne. Two branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, the House of York, symbolised by a white rose, and the House of Lancaster, symbolised by a red rose, eliminated their male lines in what wal later called the Wars of the Roses, from 1455 to 1487. Henry Tudor, relative to the Lancaster line, married Elizabeth of York, united the claims to the throne and became King Henry VII.
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Reign of the House of Tudor
The House of Tudor is a royal house of Welsh origin which ruled the Kingdom of England and their symbol, the Tudor rose, became the combination of the roses. King Henry VII married his daughter Margaret to King James IV of Scotland and signed the Treaty of Perpetual Piece with Scotland in 1502. He also married his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, princess of the newly united Kingdom of Spain, which became England's ally. But Arthur died four month after the marriage and his younger brother married the widow and later became King Henry VIII.Five monarch of the
Most famous for having six wives, King Henry VIII radically changed England in many ways. In his struggle to get his marriage with Catherine divorced or annulled, Spain and the Pope became his enemies. He declared the king Supreme Head of the Church of England and severed the ties to the Catholic Church. He also became the King of Ireland in 1542 and established a personal union between English and Irish crowns.
In 1547, Henry's son with his third wife, Jane Seymour, was crowned King Edward VI of England and Ireland. Becaouse he was only a child, a regency council ruled the realm. The Church of England became recognisably Protestant. There was also war with Scotland again and Queen Mary of Scots, who was crowned in 1542, when she was six days old, was sent to France to marry Francis, the Dauphin of France. After Edward's death in 1553, Lady Jane Grey became the Nine Days' Queen, buth she was imprisoned and later executed for treason.
Queen Mary I was the daugher of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. She is best known for her aggressive attempt to reverse the English Reformation, this is why she is called Bloody Mary. She married Phillip II of Spain and became queen consor of Habsburg Spain. Her reigh is commonly viewed quite negatively, especially by Protestants.
Queen Elizabeth I was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn and the last Tudor monarch. She was a tolerant and cautious ruler and her reign is known as the Elizabethan Era, a Golden Age of English history. English Renaissance is a famous cultural period of poetry, music and literature, most notably for theatre and William Shakespeare. The Spanish Armada failed to invade England in 1588 and the realm was free to explore the seas and expand its borders. The religious divisions were settled for a time and England was economically stable, politically centralised and effectively governed.
Her 44 years of role are regarded as a time of piece, stability and prosperity, but also some problems. One of the greatest threats was Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic with the support of France, who returned to Scotland in 1561 and was imprisoned and forced to abdicate by the newly Protestant Scotland. In 1587, she was found guilty of conspiring against Elizabeth and executed. When Queen Elizabeth I died unmarried and without children in 1603, Mary's son, King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England, in a personal union of crowns.
The Tudor period is generally regarded positively by historians. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England and a personal union with the Kingdom of Ireland was established. The population doubled to 4 million people and stimulated economic growth, especially commerce. On the other hand, the gap between the rich and the poor widened.
The House of Tudor and the era of their reign is very popular today. You can watch several series and films about the important people of this period and, although they are usually not historically accurate, you can still learn something about the era and its people. The Tudors are a seried following the life of King Henry VIII and his six wives. There are two fillms called The other Boleyn about Mary Boleyn, the sister of Anne. There are two films about Queen Elizabeth I, Elizabeth from 1998 and The Golden Age from 2007. The series Reign follows the life of Mary, Queen of Scots.
1603- 1837
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His son, King Charles I was perceived as a tyrannical absolute monarch and was unpopular. In 1642, the English Civil War began, a series of counflicts between Parliamentarians and Royalists. Charles I was defeated, imprisoned and in 1649 executed for high treason and the monarchyy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared.
In 1653, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector and the Protectorate lasted until 1659, under his son, Richard Cromwell. In 1660, the monarchy was restored, King Charles II succeeded his father and became a very popular king, often called the Merry Monarch. His reign is also called Restoration period, but he had no children and was succeeded by his brother, King James II, who was deposed in the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
The Dutch William III, Prince of Orange, Jameses's son-in-law, became king and his wife Mary became his joint sovereign. During his reign, the transituion to a more Parliamnet-centred rule began. He was succeeded by Queen Anne, daughter of King James II, who united England and Scotland into a single sovereign state by the Acts of Union in 1707 and became the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland. She was the last monarch of the House of Stuart.
In 1714, King George I, of the House of Hanover, became the new monarch and during his reign, the power of the king diminished, the state became governed by a modern system of cabinet government with a Prime Minister. With the Acts of Union in 1800, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland were united into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801.
After a period of weak and unpopular monarchs, King William IV reigned from 1830 to 1837, after the death of his older brothers he became king at the age of 64. He reformed the kingdom, the poor law was updated, child labour restricted, slavery abolished in the British Empire and the electoral system reformed. He was the last male monarch of the House of Hanover and he was succeeded by his niece, Queen Victoria.
Victorian Era
Alexandrina Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, the fourth son of King George III, and the last monarch of the House of Hanover. She inherited the throne at the age of 18 and became a national icon identified with strict standarts of personal morality. She became Queen Victoria in 1837 and reigned for 63 years, this period is called the Victorian Era, marked by a great expansion of the British Empire, and was a time of industrial, scientific, cultural, political and military change within the UK. Queen Victoria is portrayed extensively in popular culture, a new series called Victoria started in 2016.Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and had nine children. Before the Victorian Era, brides wore many colours to their ceremony and royal brides typically wore heavy brocaded gowns, usually red. Victoria wore a white lace dress at her wedding, which then became very popular. They were very happy together, Victoria fell in love and Albert became her important political adviser. After her husband's death in 1861, she mourned deeply, wore black for the rest of her life and avoided public appearances.
In 1840, she married her first cousin
Queen Victoria reigned until 1901, when she died at the age of 81. A modern constitutional monarchy was gradually established during her time, the power of the House of Commons was increased and the voting system was reformed. The monarch became a symbolic figure and emphasis was put on morality and family values of the royal family.
Culturally, this period was the time of romanticism and even mysticism, many occult orders were founded. Literature flourished and especially Irish writers, such as GB Shaw, WB Yeats or Oscar Wilde, are popular even today. English authors of this era known today are the Brönte sisters, Charles Dickens or Lewis Carrol.
Population grew rapidly, in 1901, England and Wales had more than 30,5 million people, and Scotland's population also doubled to 4,4 million people. Ireland's population, on the other hand, decreased sharply to less than 4,5 million, because in 1845, it was hit by a potato blight, which became known as the Great Famine. In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated.
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes from about 1760s to 1840s. This meant mechanization of production with the use of steam power and new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes and brought the rise of the factory system and the development of machine tools. This revolution began in the UK and many technological innovations were of British origin. The UK became the world's leading commericial nation, controlling a glogal trading empire with colonies.
Domestic political agenda became increasingly liberal. Two main political parties were the liberal Whigs and the Conservatives, and at the end of the century, Labour Party gained prominence too. From 1853 to 1856, the Crimean War against the Russian Empire in the Balkans was one of the first conflicts to use modern technologies. It became an iconic symbol of failures and mismanagement and raised the demand for professionalisation, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale.
Socially, the Victorian Era was torn between two opposites. The upper class enjoyed luxury, political influence and security and the middle class flourished, raising to political pover and financial eminence. The lower class, on the other hand, had great problems, such as poverty, harsh factory conditions, bad housing, poor sanitation, excessive drinking and prostitution. Under the Elementary Education Act 1870, basic State Education became free for every child under the age of ten.
Women had to lead a domestic life and focus on the family and moral behaviour, while men dealt with the public domain, including paid work and political influence. The image of a woman as a fragile creature and strict separation of gender roles came from this period. Women were also not allowed to vote and the first public meeting regarding their suffrage was held in Manchester's Free Trade Hall in 1868.
20th Century
In 1901, Queen Victoria died and her son Edward VII became king, starting the Edwardian Era of great displays of wealth. The new century started with a feeling of great optimism and use of new technology, such as film, cars and planes. Britain was slowly transformed into a modern democratic state which promotes welfare and provides many social services.In 1910, George V became king, he and his wife Queen Mary started the new trend of hard working and popular British royalty with middle-class values and virtues. The era was prosperous, but many political crises started, with serious social instability from the Irish crisis, poor work conditions and women's suffrage movement. Problems were especially in Ireland, where the Home Rule Crisis started in 1912 and culminated in the Easter Rising of 1916, which was brutally suppressed.
On 4th August 1914, the King declared war on Garmany and Austria and the rest of the British Empire followed into World War I. It became a part of the Triple Entente with France and Russia and fought the Central Powers of Germany, Austria and the Ottoman Empire. More than 850 thousand British people died in the conflict, and also because of the Spanish flu pandemic. The war radically changed the British Empire and the war generation is known as the Lost Generation.
At the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the League of Nation was formed and a new era began. Heavy financial reparations were imposed on the countries which lost the war and many political and social changes started all over the world. Some women gained the right to vote in 1918, all women can vote since 1928. The war resulted in pessimism and started a new era, Modernism and the Roaring Twenties. Many countries adopted the politics of pacifism and appeasement.
In 1918, the Irish Sinn Féin party won elections in Ireland and formed the First Dáil parliament in Dublin. A declaration of independence was ratified in 1919 an the Anglo-Irish War started. In 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty established the Irish Free State and six northern and mostly Protestant counties became Northern Ireland. In 1927, Britain was oficially renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In 1929, the Great Depression originated in the US and quickly spread to the world. This lead to the rise of dictators, such as Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy. In 1939, Germany invaded Poland and the Second World War broke out. In 1940, Sir Winston Churchill became Prime Minister and the air Battle of Britain was fought and won by the Royal Air Force. British forces played an important role in the Normandy landings of 1944.
In 1945, the war ended and Britain was one of the Big Four powers who met to plan the post-war world. For Britain, decolonisation started and the Empire was slowly transformed into the Commonwealth. The politics shifted towards social juctice and the National Health Service was created. Slowly, Britain lost its influence over the world and the US and Russia became the dominand superpowers.
Violence returned to Ireland in the 1960s and British troops were deployed in Northern Ireland. On 30th January 1972, Bloody Sunday took place in Bogside, Derry, where 28 civilians were shot or injured by soldiers. The incident became one of the most significant events of the Troubles, which oficially ended with the Good Friday Agreement of 1998.
Margaret Thatcher, called the Iron Lady, was the Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990, the longest serving Prime Minister of the 20th century. The Falklands War was a 10 week long, undeclared conflict between the UK and Argentina over the dependent territories in South Atlantic in 1982, which resulted in British victory.
In 1992, the UK became one of the 12 founding member of the European Union. In 2016, almost 52% of voters in the UK voted to leave the European Union. Since 1997, the laubourist government began the devolution of the UK, when devolved governments were created for Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. In 2014, Scotland rejected the proposal of becoming an independent country in a referendum, by a margin of approximately 55% to 45%.
Culture
The culture of the UK has been influenced by many factors in its history as well as the country being located on islands. British influence can be especially observed in the language, cultue and legal systems of many former colonies. The substantial cultural influence of the UK has led it to be described as a cultural superpower.British literature is mostly written in the English language and the UK is one of the largest publishers of books in the world. Famous British authors include Christopher Marlowe, Geoffrey Chauces, Sir Thomas More, Daniel Defoe, Jane Austen, Mary Shelley, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell, Ian Fleming, JRR Tolkien, Neil Gaiman, Arthur Conan Doyle, Robert Louis Stevenson, Oscar Wilde, Bram Stoker and GB Shaw.
William Shakespeare was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the greatest dramatist in the world. He wrote 39 plays, 154 sonnets and two long narrative poems. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and moved to London, where he owned a playing company called the King's Men. He is mostly known for his tragedies, for example Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth. His best known comedies are A Midsummer Night's Dream, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and The Merchant of Venice. He also wrote history plays focused on the reigning monarchs, especially about the Hundrd Years War and the Wars of Roses, including King John, Richard II and Henry VIII.
British music varies in style from indigenous folk music to modern styles. The UK is home to the world-renowned symphonic orchestras and choruses, such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Some notable composers include Mike Oldfield, Clint Mansell and David Arnold. Promonent British bands include The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin and The Who. Some of the most famous interprets are Elton John, David Bowie, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse and Adele.
The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. Their best-known lineup comprised of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time and they revolutionised many aspects of the music industry. The band broke up in 1970 and John Lennon was shot in 1980. Their most famous songs are Love Me Do, A Hard Day's Night, Let It Be, Yesterday and Hey Jude.
British cinema had a considerable influence on the history of films. The golden age of the cinema in the UK was in the 1930s and 1940s with directors such as David Lean. Some of the most famous British actors include Maggie Smith, Roger Moore, Michael Caine, Sean Connery, Judi Denchm Gary Oldman and Kate Winslet. Some of the worlds highest grossing franchises are also British, including Harry Pottern and James Bond. Today, the most famous directors are Christopher Nolan, Ridley Scott and Alfred Hitchcock. The annual BAFTA awards hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts are considered to be the British equivalent of the Academy Awards.
Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin was an English comic actor, filmmaker and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona the Tramp and is considered one of the most important figures in the hostory of film industry. His greatest films include The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times and The Great Dictator.
British cuisine is the heritage of cooking traditions and practises, both rich in indigenous tradition and enriched by colonial history. Food rationing policies during wartime periods are widely considered today to be responsible for the poor international reputation of the British cuisine. Some well-known traditional British dishes include the full breakfast, fish and chips, the Christmas dinner, the Sunday roast, shephard's pie, Haggis, cawl, Ulster fry and banglers and mash. The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine.
Gin is a distilled alcohlic drink that derived its predominant flavour from juniper berries. It used to be a midicinal liquor made by monks in Italy and was introduces in England in the 17th century. It was cheap and became popular with poor people very quickly. It was blamed for various social problems and gained negative reputation.
England
England is a country that is part of the UK, it is located in the south-east and borders with Wales to the west and Scotland to the north. The Kingdom of England began with the unification of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in 927AD and lasted until 1707, when it became the Kingdom of Great Britain after the union with Scotland. Today, it has nine regions and 48 ceremonial counties with a Lord Lieutenant and a High Sheriff.Its population is over 56 million, which is 84% of the UK, and the caputal and the biggest city is London. Other main cities include Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, Portsmouth, Bradford, Southampton, Newcastle upon Tyne, Nottingham, Sheffield, Bristol and Brighton&Hove. Other important cities include Oxford, Cambridge, Bath, Canterbury, Coventry, Salisbury, York and Stratford-upon-Avon.
English folklore is very rich and region-specific. The legend of Robin Hood and the Merry Men of Sherwood is very famous. The story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is also set in England, although it is of Norman and Welsh sources. Other folk figures include Lady Godiva, Guy Fawkes and the pirate Blackbeard. England has a lot of famous artists, English writers include William Shakespeare, Geoffrey Chaucer, Mary Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth.
Its economy is one of the largest in the world, it is highly industrialized. There is an increasing emphasis on service industry oriented economy and tourism. England exports pharmaceuticals, cars, such as Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley, crude oil and petroleum, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages. Traditional companies are also Rolls-Royce, Twinings and Cadbury confectionary.
England's terrain is mainly low hills and plains, but there are mountains in the north, for example the Pennies and the Lake District, and the west, for example Dartmoor. Main English rivers are Thames, Mersey, Tyne and Severn. There are many lakes in England, especially in the Lake District where the highes mountain is located, Scafell Pike with 978 metres. The climate is temperate and maritime, with mild temperature changes, but changeable weather and frequent rain.
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| Tom Quad - the Great Quadrangle of Christ Church in Oxford |
The city is the home of the University of Oxford, the oldest university in the English-speaking world. It is said to be founded in 1096, which makes it the second oldest university in operation. It has numerous major tourist attractions and is currently ranked as the world's number one university. In 1209, after a dispute between students and tawnsfolk, some academics fled to Cambridge and established a new university. A total of 69 Nobel Laureates and 27 British Prime Ministers studied or taught at Oxford University.
Christ Church is a college of the university, founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. It has a number of architectually significant buildings, including Tom Tower designed by Sir Christopher Wren, the Great Dining Hall and Tom Quad. The buildings have inspired many replicas and were featured in the Herry Potter films.
The Radcliffe Camera was opened in 1749 to house the Radcliffe Science Library. It was funded from the estate of John Radcliffe, a notable doctor. It was later merged with the Bodleian Library of the university and the Camera became a reading room.
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| the Bridge of Sights in Cambridge |
The world-renowned University of Cambridge was founded in 1209, which makes it the second oldest university in the English-speaking world. The two ancient universities are sometimes referred to as Oxbridge. It is ranked as the second best university in the world and, in 2011, there were about 25 thousand students in the city. It has educated 118 Nobel Laureates and 15 British Prime Ministers. Cambridge University Press is the world's oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world.
King's College lies beside the River Cam and faces out onto King's Parade. It was founded in 1441 and the building of the emblematic King's College Chapel was finished in 1544 by Henry VIII. It is regarded as one of the greatest examples of late Gothic English architecture and it has the largest fan vault in the world.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, 3km from Amesbury. It consists of a ring of standing stones around 4m high and 2m wide and weighting around 25 tons. Archeologists believe it was constructed from 3000BC to 2000BC and the earliest phase of the monument has been dated back to 3100BC. It is regarded as a British cultural icon and it is on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. It was produced by a culture that left no written records. The purpose of the stones and the way they were transported and erected, remain a subject to debate.
Stratford-upon-Avon is a market town north west of London with a population of 27 thousand people. It is a popular tourist destination as the birthplace of William Shakespeare. The Royal Shakespeare Compan resides in the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in the city. The route of the Historic Spine begins at Shakespeare's Birthplace in Henley Street. It continues to Bridge Street and High Street, where many Elizabethan buildings are located, including Harvard House. There are many other historical streets and houses, such as the Old Town, Nash's House, Hall's Croft and the Holy Trinity Church.
Windsor is a historic market town with about 32 thousand inhabitants, located 35km from London, south of the River Thames. The town is about a thousand years old and William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed there. It is a popular tourist destination, many famous people live there and near the town is the only Legoland park in the UK. Across the river, there is its twin town Eton a historic town connected to it by Windsor Bridge. In 1440, Henry VI chose it as the location of his new college. The town is more commercial than residential, only 2,3 thousand people live there, but there are many businesses.
Windsor Castle is a royal residence notable for its association with the royal family and its architecture. Since the 12th century, it was used by the reigning monarch and is therefore the longest occupied palace in Europe. It was enlarged and reconstructed several times and became the most expensive secular building of the Middle Ages in England. It was used as a royal court, miliraty headquarters and even as a refuge for the royal family during WWII.
Eton College is an independent boarding school and fixth form for boys between the ages of 18 and 18. It was founded by Henry VI in 1440 and is now one of the original nine public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. It is one of four remaining schools only for boys and it is very expensive, up to more than £13000 per term, with three term per academic year. About 1300 pupils study here every year in 25 houses and they wear traditional uniforms, a black tailcoat and a black waistcoat, a starched stiff collar and pinstriped trousers.
Salisbury is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, at the confluence of five rivers, Avon, Ebble, Nadder, Wylye and Bourne. The population is about 40 thousand people, with an urban area of about 62 thousand people. The city is only 13km from Stonehenge and therefore a great tourist attraction. Is it an important centre of music since the 18th century and has a strong artistic community.
Salisbury Cathedral is great example of English architecture from the 13th century and with 123m has the tallest church spire in the UK. Its clock is one of the oldest working clocks in the world. Aso, the cathedral houses the best surviving of the four original copies of Magna Carty.
Manchester is the third most populous urban area in the UK, with 545 thousand inhabitants of the city and 3,2 million people in the metropolitan area. It became a major city because of textile manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution, it was the first industrial city in the world. It lies on the River Irwell and River Mersey and is famous for many red brick buildings. Is is known as a city of sport, with two decorated Premier League football clubs, Manchester United and Manchester City.
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| St Mary's Abbey in York |
Bath is the largest city in the county of Somerset, with a population of 89 thousand people. The city is known for its Roman built baths and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It became a spa in 60AD when the Romans built baths and a temple in the valey of the River Avon, although the hot springs were known before then.
Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre. It used to be a Benedictine minastery which was dissolved but the cathedral is still functional.
The Roman Baths complex is a well preserved historical site once used for public bathing. They are below the modern street level and have four main features, the Sacred Spring, the Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House and the museum. Wisitors can tour the baths but are not allowed in the water.
The Royal Crescent is a row of 30 terraced houses laid out in a sweeping crescent. It is 150m long and one of the grestes examples of Georgian architecture in the UK. In was finished in 1774 and many notable people lived or stayed there.
York is a historic walled city in North Yorkshire at the confluence of River Ouse and Floss. York Castle is a fortified complex nuw in ruins, the most known part is Clifford's Tower, a Norman castle. The Abbey of St Mary is a ruined Benedictine abbey, which used to be the richest in England. York Minster is a cathedral, one of the largest of its kind in Europe, and its Great East Window is the largest expanse of mediaeval stained glass in the world. The Shambles is an old street with overhanging timber framed buildings dating back as far as the 14th century.
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| Durdle Door |
Hardian's Wall is a defensive fortification built by Romans to defend their province, Britannia. The construction begun in AD122 and marked the northern limit of the Roman Empire. It has a stone base and stone walls and there were milecastles and watchtowers, and a larger fort every five Roman miles. A significant portion of the wall still stands ans is the largest Roman archeological feature. The Wall is regarded as a British cultural icon and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It lies entirely in England and has never formed the Anglo-Scottish border.
The Lake District, also called Lakeland, is a mountainous region in north west England. It is a popular holiday destination and it is associated with a group of artists known as the Lake Poets. In 1951, a National Park was established in the area which later became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The highest mouintain of England, Scaffel Pike, is located within the Park. The District contains the deepest and largest natural lakes in England, West Water and Windermere.
The Lake Poets all lived in the Lake District in the first half of the 19th century. They are considered part of the Romantic Movement. Three main figures of the group are William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey. Wordsworth even wrote the Guide to the Lakes, a travellers' guidebook to the District.
Coventry is a city near Birmingham, known for its car production. The current Coventry Cathedral was built after the majority of the 14th century church of St Michael was destroyed by the Luftwaffe in the Coventry Blitz of 14th November 1940.
Brighton is a seaside rosort on the south coast of England and part of the city of Brighton and Hove. The city developed under the patronage of Prince Regent and lated King George IV, who spent much time in the town. Today, it is a major tourist destination and a holiday resort.
The Royal Pavilion is a former royal residence built between 1787 and 1811 in the Indo-Saracenic style. The current appearance is the work of architect John Nash, who extended the building. Queen Victoria disliked it and sold it to the city in 1820. It is a somewhat controversial building, but a major tourist attraction. It was changed from a private residence to a public attraction, especially for weddings.
Canterbury is a historic English cathedral city on the River Stour. The heart of the city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the primate of the Church of England and the sity cathedral became a major focus of pilgrimage following the martyrdom of Thomas Becket in 1170. The journey to the city is the frame to Geofrey Chaucer's 14th century classic The Canterbury Tales.
Canterbury Cathedral is one of the oldest and most famous in England. It was founded in 597 and rebuilt into a cathedral in 1077 and into the Gothic style a century later. Thomas Becket was an archbishop who was murdered in the cathedral, where his shrine is until today. Before the Reformation, the cathedral was part of a Benedictine monastic community until the abbey was dissolved. Becket's shrine was destroyed on the orders of Henry VII and his relics were lost.
Wales
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| the flag of Wales |
The flag of Wales contains a red dragon passant on a green and white field. The dragon was a symbol of Cadwaladr, King of Gwynedd in the 7th century. The white and green are Tudor colours and the flag was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. The dragon was then used as a supporter of the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognized as the Welsh national flag in 1959.
The daffodil and the leek are both symbols of Wales. The confusion comes from the Welsh language, where the leek is called cenhinen and the daffodil is called cenhinen Bedr, St Peter's leek. The national anthem is Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, Land of My Fathers. The patron saint of Wales is St David, a Welsh bishop from the 6th century.
Welsh national identity emerged after the Roman withdrawal in the 5th century. Throughout the Middle Ages, the east and south of the country were constantly under atttack by the English, who conquered parts of Wales. In 1216, Llywelyn Fawr received a pledge of allegiance of the other lords of Wales and became the first Prince of Wales. The whole country was annexed by England and incorporated under the Laws in Wales Act 1535 and 1542. Welsh national feeling grew since the 19th century and Plaid Cymru a a political party founded in 1925.
The population is about 3,1 million people, which is only about 4,7 % of the total population of the UK. Most people live in South Wales, in big cities such as Cardiff, Swansea and Newport and the nearby valleys. In Wales, there is the villege with the longest name in the world, Llanfairpellgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch. Majority of the population speaks English as their first language, but the country has retained its distinct cultural identity. Wales is officially bilingual, the Welsh Language Society was founded in 1962 and over 562 thousand people speak Welsh. The University College of Wales opened in Aberystwyth in 1872 and Cardiff and Bangor soon followed, in 1893, they formed the University of Wales.
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| Welsh in Wales |
Dylan Thomas was a 20th century writer, author of the famous poem Do not go gentle into that good night and a short story collection Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog. Wales is referred to as the Land of the Song and is notable for harpists and choirs, a popular Welsh band today is Bullet for My Valentine. Most recognized Welsh actors are Anthony Hopkins, John Rhys-Davies, Ioan Gruffudd, Michael Sheen and Catherine Zeta-Jones.
The economy of extractive and heavy industiries is in decline, the mining and expoer of coal used to be the dominant industry. Now, it focuses on the public sector, service industries and tourism. The country's poor quality of soil is unsuitable for crops and the land is mostly used for pasture. Livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture, it is mostly known for sheep farms. In 2008, Wales made history by becoming the first nation to be awarded Fairtrade Status.
Wales has over 2700km of coastline and is largely mountains, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas. The highest mountain is Snowdon with 1085m, called Yr Wyddfa in Welsh, and it is located in Snowdonia. Main rivers are Dee, Clwyd, Teifi, Towy, Wye, Usk and Severn. The country lies within the temperate zone and has changeable, maritime climate. Over 50 islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest is Anglesey in the north-west. Wales ha three national parks, Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire Coast.
In 1081, William the Conqueror began work on the castle keep within the walls of the old Roman fort. The Cardiff Castle became the heart of the city and was extended during the Victorian period. The Victorian Gothic revival mansion is the main range of the castle today.
The Senedd, also known as the Nationa Assembly building, houses the debating chamber and three committee rooms for the National Assembly for Wales. It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 2006 as the third building for the Asslembly. Ty Hywel, previously Crickhowell House, houses the Assembly Members and their staff and the Welsh Government. The Pierhead Building in Cardiff Bay is one of the most familiar landmarks of the city.
Snowdonia is a mountainous region in northwestern Wales and a national park. It contains the highest peaks in the UK outside of Scotland. It is one of the wettest parts of the UK and it is very important as a conservation of habitat and wildlife.
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct carries the Llangollen Canal across the River Dee. The structure was completed in 1805 and serves special narrow boats. It is the highest canal aqueduct in the world, it is 307m long, 3,7m wide and 38m high.
Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd includes the Castles of Beaumaris and Harlech and the castles and town walls of Caernarfon and Conwy. These are considered the finest examples of late 13th century and early 14th centuy military architecture. They were built by Edward I after his invasion of North Wales in 1282.
Scotland
The first Roman incursion into Scotland occured in 79AD. Two great walls, Hadrian's Wall and Antonine Wall, were built to protect the Roman territories from the tribes residing in Scotland. The Romans introduced Christianity and influence the southern regions significantly. The Scottish nation emerged in the 12th century with the unification of the state. Scots spoke Gaelic, but many English speaking colonist came to Scotland in the Middle Ages. The greatest ally of the kingdom was France, starting with the Auld Alliance in 1295.
Scotland fought fiercely with England and defended its indepencedce for centuries. In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath, was the world's first declaration of independence. The most famous reigning family is the House of Stuart, the most famous ruler is Mary, Queen of Scots. In 1603, James VI, King of Scots, inherited the thrones of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland in the Union of Crowns. In 1707, the Acts of Union created the Kingdom of Great Britain and Scotland lost its independence completely. In 2014, only 55% people voted against the Scottish independence in a referendum.
In the 18th century, the country went through the Scottish Enlightenment which brought many cultural and scientific enrichments. Scotland has four universities from the 15th and 16th century, St Andrews in Fife and universities in Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation's culture and the traditional istrument is the Great Highland bagpipe.
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| a Scot dressed in a kilt, playing pipes in the Highlands |
St Andrew was a Christian Apostle and the brother of St Peter. Several legends say that his remains were brought to Scotland in the 8th century. In 832, King Óengus II led an army of Picts and Scots into battle agains the Angles and won by divine intervention. The clouds formed an X shape, which was interpreted as the symbol of St Andrew's crucifiction. The saint was appointed the patron of Scotland and a white cross against blue background became the flag of the country. The 30th November is St Andrew's Day and it is a bank holiday in Scotland.
Scotland has no national anthem, but several songs are played to represent the country. The thistle is a national emblem of Scotland and the national animal is a unicorn. There are many traditional products, such as the traditional meal Haggis and Scotch whisky. Tartan is a specific woven textile pattern that often signifies a particular Scottish clan, as featured on a kilt.
A kilt is a traditional attire of the Scots, made of woollen cloth in a tartan pattern. It is a type of a knee-length skirt with pleats in the back. It originated as a traditional dress of Gaelic men in the Scottish Highlands in the 16th century. The modern kilt is worn since the 18th century, it is essentially the bottom half of the old great kilt. It is most often worn on formal occasions, in combination with a tuxedo.
Scotland is about the size of the Czech Republic and it borders with England between the basin of the River Tweed and the Solway Firth. The landscape was much affected by glaciation and can be divided into three parts. The Highlands and the Islands are mostly mountains, with Ben Nevis as the highest point of the UK. There are four main groups of islands, Shetlands, Orkneys, and the Inner and Outer Hebrides. Central Lowlands used to be volcanically active and are significant for bearing coal and iron rocks. The Southern Uplands are mostly hills, with the highest village in the UK, Wanlockhead at 430m. The temperate oceanic climate is warmed by the Gulf Stream, so it is much warmer than areas with similar latitudes. The main rivers are Clyde, Spey and Tweed.
Traditionally, the economy has been dominated by heavy industry, such as coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries have been important since the 1970s, but today, the country is more service oriented. Edinburgh is the financial centre, with many large finance firms based in the city. Scotland primarily exports whisky, electronics and financial services and it holds 95% of the UK oil and gas reserves.
The Palace of Holyrood is the official residence of the British monarch in Scotland. It is located at the bottom of the Royal Mile, at the opposite end to the Edinburgh Castle. It has served as the principal residence of the Kings of Scots since the 16th centur
y. Queen Elizabeth II spends one week in residence at the Palace at the beginning of each summer.
Edinburgh Castle is a historic fortress on the Castle Rock which dated to the 12th century. It used to be a royal residence until 1633, but is was later used as military barracks with a large garrison. As one of the most important strongholds in the Kingdom of Scotland, it was involved in many historical conflicts and it is a part of the national heritage. It is said to be the most besieged place in Great Britain and one of the most attacked in the world. The castle houses the Scottish regalia and the National War Museum of Scotland.
The churches of St Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate ate also part of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. St Giles' Cathedral, also known as the High Kirk of Edinburgh. is the principal place of worship pf the Church of Scotland.
Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills in Edinburgh which form most of Holyrood Park. It is 250m high and 1,6km far from Edinburgh Castle. It is very popular for walks and not difficult to climb and the views are beautiful.
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| Eilean Donan Castle |
Ben Nevis in the Lochaber area is the highes mountain in the British Isles. The summit is a collapsed dome of an ancient volcano and features the ruins of an observatory.
Loch Ness is a large, deep, freshwater loch southwest of Inverness. It is best known for the alleged sightings of the cryptozoological Loch Ness Monster, known as Nessie. It is the second largest loch by surface area, but the largest loch by volume, and the second deepest loch in Scotland. Urquhart Castle lies on the bank of the loch, its ruins are dated between the 13th and the 16th centuries. It is one of the largest in Scotland and it was permanently destroyed in 1692.
The Glenfinnan Viaduct is a railway viaduct on the West Highland Line, located on top of Loch Shiel and the Glenfinnan Monument. With 380m, it is the longest concrete railway bridge in Scotland. It crosses the river Finnan at a height on 30m and was opened in 1901, after four years of construction.
Eilean Donan is a small tidal island where three sea lochs meet, Loch Duich, Loch Long and Loch Alsh. A beautiful castle known from pictures dominates the island, which lies near the village Dornie. The castle originates from the 13th century and was restored in the early 20th century, after it was destroyed in 1719.
Smoo Cave is a large combined sea cave and freshwater cave in Durness in Sutherland. It is unique for the combination of forces that created it. It has three parts, an entrance chamber, a waterfall chamber and a short freshwater passage which leads to a terminal sump chamber.
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| Fingal's Cave - hexagonal columns |
Glasgow is the most populous city in Scotland and the third mous populous city in the UK. It is situated on the River Clyde in the Lowlands. The inhabitants are referred to as Glaswegians or Weegies, and there are 621 thousand of them, with a metropolitan area of 1,65 million people.
The Antonine Wall was a wooden turf fortification on stone foundations, built by the Romans across the Central Belt of Scotland.It was 63km long, 3m high and 5m wide and its ruins are not so evident today. Its construction began in 142AD and took 12 years, it was abandoned in the 3rd century.
The Isle of Skye is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides. The population is abozt 10 thousand people and the capital and the largest settlement is Portree. The Cuillin is a range of rocky mountains which are considered a national scenic area.
Fingal's Cave is a sea cave on the uninhabited island of Staffa, in the Inner Hebrides. In is part of the national treasure reserve and it is known for its acoustics. It is formed entirely from hexagonally joined basalt columns from a cooled lava flow.
National Wallace Monument is a tower standing on the shoulder of the Abbey Craig, a hilltop overlooking Stirling. It commemorates Sir William Wallace, a 13th century Scottish hero. It was constructed after a fundraising campaign in the 19th century, as part of the resurgence of Scottish national identity. A number of artefacts believed to have belonged to Wallace are on display, including the Wallace Sword, which is 1,63m long and weights almost 3kg.
Sir William Wallace was a Scottish knight who became one of the leaders during the First War of Scottish Independence. He defeated an English army at the battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297. In 1305, he was captured and King Edward I had him hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason. He is a Scottish national icon and the film Braveheart starring Mel Gibson is about him.
Northern Ireland
The official flag of Northern Ireland is de jure the Union Jack, however, the Ulster Banner is used by the goverment. On the other hand, St Patrick's Saltire is used to represent Northern Ireland in the Union Jack and is used to represent the country during royal events. Saint Patrick is the Patron saint of Ireland and he is known as the apostle of Ireland. He was a Christian missionary in the 5th century and there are many legends about him, for example, that he banished snakes from the island. St Patrick's Day, celebrated on 17th March, is a public holiday in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland. Shamrock is another symbol of Ireland, also connected to St Patrick. One of the most popular musical instruments is the Irish harph, which represents the immortality of the soul. Also, many Celtic symbols were adopted by the Irish and the flax plant was chosen as the logo of the Assembly. There is no official anthem, but several songs are played in sports events, such as Londonderry Air or Ireland's Call.
Gaelic Ireland was a political structure on the island of Ireland which emerged in the 2nd century. Catholicism arrived to Ireland in the 4th century and has a significant cultural impact. Normans invaded the country in 1169 and started conquering the island. Gaelic Ireland was defeated in the battle of Kinsale in 1601 and definitively became part of the British Empire.
Since the 17th century, a conflict arose between the Protestant British minority who had power and the Catholic Irish majority. In 1801, after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Irish Parliament was abolished and the country became oficially part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1845, Great Famine struck Ireland and more than a million people died of starvation. Many Irish people started to immigrate, especially to America, and the population country decreased.
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| the Troubles |
The majority of population of Northern Ireland were unionists, Protestant descendants of colonists from England, and they wanted to remain part of the UK. In 1922 the Irish Free State was created from Southern Ireland, where the majority were Catholic nationalists, demanding Irish independence. For the rest of the 20st century, the two groups fought each other, engaging in violence and discrimination.
The Troubles was an ethno-nationalist conflict in Ireland which began in the 1960s and ended in the 1990s. In 1969, the conflict let to riots and British troops were deployed in Northern Ireland. This led to the emergence of paramilitary organisations and a guerilla war. IRA, the Provisional Irish Republican Army, was the most known participant of the conflict and it was seen by most as an unlawful terrorist organisation. More than 3500 people were killed in the conflict which ended with the Good Friday Agreement of 1998. IRA was disarmed and ended its campain in 2005.
Northern Ireland has a population of 1,9 million people, which is about 30% of the total island population. It consists of six historic counties which are no longer used, instead, there are eleven districts. English is the first language of almost everyone in the country, but Irish and Ulster Scots are recognized too. The main universities are Queen's University Belfast and Ulster University.
Culturally, Northern Ireland is as divided as politically. Parades are a prominent cultural feature of the Irish Protestants, which rises tensions with the Catholics. The Ulster Cycle is a large body of literature about eastern Ulster and one of the four major cycles of Irish mythology. It centres on the reign of Conchobar mac Nessa and the foremost hero is his nephew, Cúchulainn. There are also many popular Irish folk tales which feature Irish heroes and supernatural beings such as the Banshee.
There are many prominent artists and sportspeople from Northern Ireland, but the cultural links between the British and Irish are complex. For example, Liam Neeson prefers to call himself Irish, although he is from Northern Ireland and therefore British. Politically, the country is still divided between the unionists and the nationalists, represented by the Sinn Féin party.
Historically, Northern Ireland was the most industrialised part of Ireland. The economy declined because of the Troubles, but has grown significantly since the 1990s. Traditional industries include shipbuilding, rope manufacture and textilies, but most of the heavy industry was replaced by services.
The country consists mainly of low flats and hills, the highest mountain is Slieve Donard with 850m. Volcanic activity created the Antrim Plateau and many beautiful natural sightsThe largest freshwater lake of the UK is Lough Neagh, situated in the centre of the country. The main rivers are Bann, Erne and Foyle. The largest island is Rathlin. It is one of the least forested mart of Europe with only 8% of woodland. The weather is quite unpredictable and it is mostly overcast.
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| Belfast Castle |
Belfast Lough is a large, intertidal sea inlet on the east coast of Northern Ireland. It opens into the North Channel and connects Belfast to the Irish Sea.
Cave Hill, sometimes spelled Cavehill, is a basaltic hill oberlooking the city. It is distinguished by its Napoleon's Nose. All of Belfast can be seen from the peak and on clear days, even the Isle of Man and Scotland shore.
Belfast Castle is set on the slopes of Cavehill Country Park, in a prominent position of 120m above sea level. It has a beautiful view of the city and Belfast Lough. The original Norman castle from the 12th century was located in the city, but it burned down in 1708. The new castle was built between 1811 and 1870 in a Scottish baronial style. It was presented to the City of Belfast in 1934 and the Council began a major refurbishment. It was opened to public in 1988 and is popular for weddings and private dining receptions.
Stormont Estate is the site of the main government buildings, surrounded by parks and forests. Parliament Buildings, often called Stormont, are the seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly. Stormont Castle is a mansion used as the meeting place of the Northern Ireland Executive, the government.
RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean on 15th April 1912 after colliding with an iceberg. There was an estimated 2224 passengers and crew onboard and more than 1500 died, including Thomas Andrews, the chief naval architect. It was the largest ship of its time and it was built in the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast.
Derry, officially Londonderry, is the second largest citi in Northern Ireland. The old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle and the population is about 85 thousand people, with 237 thousand in the metropolitan area. It is the only remaining completely intact walled city in Ireland.
Lough Neagh is the largest freshwater lake by area in the British Isles. It is located in the middle of Northern Ireland and it supplies 40% of Northern Ireland's water. It is 30km long and 15km wide, but not very deep, the maximum depth is 25m.
The Giant's Causeway is an area of about 40 thousand interlocking basalt columns which are the result of an ancient volcanic fissure eruption. It is located in the County Antrim, on the north coast, close to the town of Buchmills. It is an UNESCO World Heritage Site and a national treasure reserve. Most of the columns are hexagonal and the tallest are about 12m high. The solidified lava in the cliffs is 28m thick in places. According to legend, the columns are the remains of a causeway built by a giant.
The Marble Arch Caves are a series of natural limestone caves located near the village of Florencecourt in County Fermanagh. They are named afrer the nearby Marble Arch, a natural limestone arch at the Cladagh River. The caves are created by three rivers which emerge from the largest karst resurgence in Ireland. They are 11,5km long and therefore the longest known cave system in Northern Ireland.
Scrabo Tower is a 41m high lookout on Scrabo Hill near Newtownards in County Down. It was built as a memorial to Charles Vane, Marquess of Londonderry, and was originally known as Londonderry Monument. It is a fairytale-like tower built in Scottish Baronial Revival style and it offers beautiful views.
Mussenden Temple is a small circular building located on cliffs near Castlerock in County Londonderry. It was built in 1785 as a library and brough closer to the ocean by erosion of the cliffs.
