Sport

Published: 23.09.2023

Sport

Sport is a form of physical activity or game. People do sport to improve health and physical skills, to simply enjoy doing an activity and sometimes entertain spectators. Hundreds of sports exist, there are also many competitions, races, tournaments and championships. Sports can also be organized into seasons, leagues, teams and clubs.

          To participate in sports, people should have a sense of sportmanship. This means that they should respect their teammates and opponents, play fairly and accept victory or defeat with grace. Rules ahould not be broken and players should not cheat in any way. Doping, the use of enhancing drugs, is not allowed by any sport. Violence is also not tolerated in any way and even sport fans need to behave respectfully, although rioting and hooliganis is a problem in some sports.

          There are many types of sports and sport categories. Sport can be divided in many ways.

PEOPLE - individual (shooting), partner (dancing), team (football)

PARTICIPATION - male, female and mixed (gender issues), parasport (for disabled people), youth sport (for children and adolescents), senior sport

REGION - local, regonal, national, international (worldwide), Olympic

POPULARITY - major sport (hockey), minor sport (fencing)

ENVIRONMENT - summer (swimming), winter (skiing), indoor (boxing), outdoor (rugby), all-season

FACILITIES - pool, track, ice rink, fiels, pitch, stadium, road (cycling), nature  (cross country course)

EQUIPMENT - ball sports, equestrian (horse riding), archery, carting

HISTORY - ancient sport (disc throwing), modern (cycling), future (pole dance), fictional (quidditch)

SERIOUSNESS - amateur (for fun, recreational), professional (can be their job), elite sport (top)

Sport in the UK

Many sports originated in the UK, such as football, boxing, cricket, darts, golf, tennis and water polo. The most popular sport is association football, but the UK is very diverse in sports. The division into national teams is very complicated in the UK and various sports have their own teams for England, Scotland, Wales, orthern Ireland or the whole Ireland, and also many combination, according to tradition.

          Sport is compulsory for all students up to the age of 16, but not much time is devoted to it. There are frequent complaints that state sector schools do too little to encourage sport and a healthy lifestyle. Sports culture is stronger in independent, fee-charging schools which have many elite competitors in almost all sports.

          The Premier League is the top level of the English football league system. Seven clubs have won the title, Manchester United, Chelsea, Manchester City, Arsenal, Blackburn Rovers, Leicester City and Liverpool. Chelsea in a London football club founded in 1905, it is one of the most successful clubs. Manchester United is a Manchester football club founded in 1878, nicknamed the Red Devils, the most successful club in England. Arsenal is a London football club founded in 1886, it is one of the most successful clubs in England. Wembley Stadium was first built in 1922 in London and it is most known for football matches and Live Aid concert of 1985.

          The Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, it was founded in 1877. It is widely prestigious and it is held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, London. It is the only major tournament still played on grass. It includes a strict all-white dress code for competitors and royal patronage. Strawberries and cream are traditionally consumed at the tournament.

Sport in the US

Sports are an im portant part of culture in the US. The most popular sports are American football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey. The US is one of the most successful sports nations in the world based on Olympic Games, but unlike most other nations, the US government does not provide funding for it.

          Sports are particularly associated with education, with most high schools and universities having organized sports. College sports competitions play an important role in the American culture and various rituals have grown up around athletic contests. The local high school game represents the biggest event of the week for many communities. Many universities offer sports scholarships, over 126 thousand student receive at least partial sports scholarship.

          The NHL, National Hockey League, is a professional ice hockey league in North America comprising of teams from the US and Canada. It was founded in 1917 in Montreal and it is the fifth wealthiest professional sport league. The NBA, National Basketball Association, is a professional basketball league in North America comprising of teams from the US and Canada. It was founded in 1946 in New York City and it is the third wealthiest professional sport league. The Ivy League is a collegiate athletic conference comprising of eight private research universities, some of the most prestigious in the world.

          There are many iconic stadiums in the US, for example the Astrodome in Houston or the Old Yankee Stadium in New York City.

The Olympic Games

The modern Olympic Games are considered the world's foremost sports competition. They are ormally held every four years.
          The creation of the competition was inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, held in Olympia in Greece from the 8th century BC to the 4th century BC. The International Olympic Committee was founded in 1894 by Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The first modern Games took place in Athens in 1896. Since 1994, the Summer and the Winter Olympic Games are alternatedevery two years.
           There are several Olympic rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch and the opening and closing ceremonies.

Housing

Published: 21.09.2023

Housing

Housing in the UK

About 30% of homes are owned by their occupants and about 40% are on a mortgage. The cost of housing as a proportion of income is higher than average among EU countries. London is one of the most expensive places to live, the most expensive street is Kensington Palace Gardens. There are many social issues connected to housing that are especially problematic in London, such as homelessness and overcrowding.

          Most people live in houses, a detachead house is a single house and in can be considered quite luxurious in some parts of the country. Typical for the UK are semi-detached houses (two houses together, sharing a wall) and terraced houses (a street of houses joined together). British homes are some of the smallest and most expensive to heat in Europe, because most of them was built before 1973. Many terraced houses were built before WWI and are now more than a hundred years old. Only some houses have central heating, many use more expensive electrical heaters.

           Especially in old houses, there are some typical things that foreigners find odd. British bathrooms do not tend to have many electric sockets. Another curious thing is that the hot and cold water have separate taps, one of the reasons are that hot water is not counted as drinkable water. British electrical sockets have been designed to have three-pin plugs.

Housing in the US

Over 80% of the US population live in urban areas. American homes are some of the biggest in the world, with thre or more bedrooms, some families even have more houses. Most Americans own the house they live in and it is quite common to move every 5 years.

          American houses are very modern and equiped with air-conditioning, dish washers and garbage smashers. Around the cities, suburbs have grown quickly and the houses there were bought straight from a catalog. There houses have big back yards and no fences. Renting an apartment can be very expensive in big cities, some of the most expensive are San Francisco, New York City and Los Angeles.

           There are some old colonial building, especially in New England, and colonial architecture is very popular. In the South, plantation houses can be found, huge, luxurious and comfortable. Bungalows and Spanish mansions are typical for California, patios are popular and many houses have swimming pools. In the Midwest, farmhouses are typical, with huge red barns, and in the Southwest, there are many ranches. Most American cities vere planned before they were built and they have typical architecture, for example New York City is famous for its brownhouses.

           In the UK, the gound floor is at ground level and the first floor is upstairs, but in the UK, the firrst floor is the ground floor. Americans wear street shoes in the house in most of the country. Many houses have an American flag on display all year long. Mailboxes are also very typical, the box has a tunnel-top shape and a small red flag to signal incoming mail.

School and Education

Published: 21.09.2023

School and Education

Schools in the UK

In the UK, full time education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 (4 in Northern Ireland) and 16 (18 in England). The National Curriculum provides framework for education in England and Wales. There are separate systems of education for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the government of each country is responsible for each school system.

Nursery - for age 4 
Reception - for age 5

Infant School - Reception and Year 1 and 2, from age 5 to 7

     Primary School - for ages 5 to 11, includes Infant School and Junior School, provides with fundamental skills and establishes a solid foundation for learning

First School - from Reception to Year 4, for age 5 to 9

Junior School - for age 8 to 11, from Year 3 to 6

Middle School - for age 10 to 13, for Year 8

Comprehensive School or Secondary School with Sixth Form - for ages 11/12 to 18 

     Secondary School or High School - for age 12 to 16, for Year 7 to 11, a more subject-oriented curriculum, prepares for employment or tertiary education

Upper School - for age 14 to 18, for Year 9 to 13

Sixth Form or FE College - for age 17 and 18, for Year 12 (Lower Sixth) and Year 13 (Upper Sixth) 

School leaving age - 17

GCSE - General Certificate of Secondary Education, in a particular subject

Sixth Form - 2 years post-GCSE academic education to prepare for A-Levels

A-Level (GCE Advanced Level) - subject based qualification for completing secondary or pre-university education

Public School - a fee-charging school, originally only for boys, boarding school

Higher education is offered by universities, colleges, institutes and academies. There are degree programmes (bachelor's, master's and doctoral) and non-degree programmes that lead to a vocational qualification (certificate, diploma). The prestige of British higher education comes from its world renowned institutions, ist quality and rigorous academic standards are valued around the world. The ancient universities are British mediaval universities founded before the year 1600, there are 7 such institutions (Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Dublin).

          The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford. It was established in 1096 and it is the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the second-oldest university in continuous operation. It operates the oldest university museum in the world, the largest library system mationwide and Oxford University Press is the largest in the world

          The University of Cambridge is a collegiate research university in Cambridge. Founded in 1209, it is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. Cambridge University Press is the oldest university press in the world.

          The University of St Andrews is a public university in Scotland, the oldest in Scotland and the third-oldest in the UK. It was founded in 1413 and it is one of the best universities in the world.

          There are also several research universities in London. Imperial College London is a public research university. It was established in 1907 by royal charter. The college focuses exclusively on science, technology, medicine and business. University College London is a major public research university. It was established in 1829 and it is the largest university in the UK by total enrolment. King's College London is a public research university established in 1829. It is the largest European centre for graduate and post-graduate medical teaching and biomedical research and it includes the first nursing schoool in the world, the Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery.

Schools in the US

In the US, education is compulsory at the very least between the ages of 8 and 16, depending on each state. There is a large variety of schools, depending on each state. The US spends more per student on education than any other country.

Pre-Kindergarten - for age 3 to 5

     Elementary (Primary) School - for ages 5 to 11, primary education focusing on academic learning and socialization skills, basic subjects and a broad range of knowledge and skills

     Secondary Education - for age 11 to 17, from 6th grade to 12th grade, a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum and core areas, some courses are elective

Middle Schools and Junior High Schools - varied in different states, can be 3 or 4 grades

High School - for age 14 to 18, final stage of secondary education, subject-based classes, 4 grades with special names

GPA - Grade Point Average, one of the factors controlling college admission

SAT - Scholastic Aptitude Test, a college admission test with scores from 400 to 1600

ACT - American College Test, a college admission test with scores 1 to 36

Higher education in the US is offered by colleges and universities. Community colleges are two-year public institutions that offer diplomas, certificates and remedial education for lower tuition fees. Liberal arts colleges are four-year undergraduate and mostly-private institutions that focus of general intelectual capacities. The American university system is largely decentralized and public universities are administerd by individual states and territories. Many private universities exist, some secular and some religious.

          Harvard University is a private Ivy League university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1636, it is the oldest institution of higher learning in the US. The Harvard Library is the largest academic library system in the world. Harvard has more alumni, faculty and researcher who won Nobel Prizes (161) than any other university in the world.

          Stanford University is a private research university in California, founded in 1885. Today, it is a top university in the world, attracts funding for start-ups and the alma mater of 74 living billionaires.

          MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was founded in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization and adopted a European polytechnic university model. It focuses on laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering.

          Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in New Jersey. Founded in 1746, it is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the US.

          Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754, it is one of the nine colonial colleges founded prior to the Declaration of Independence.

          CalTech (California Institute of Technology) is a private research university in California. Founded in 1891, it is one among a small group of institutes of technology devoted to the instruction of pure and applied sciences.
           Yale University is a private Ivy League research university in Connecticut. Founded in 1701, Yale offers a wide variety of fine arts and humanities to focus on.

Jobs, Professions and Work

 Published: 21.09.2029

Jobs, Professions and Work

Wage, Salary and Income

          A salary is paid to professional workers. It is the total amout of money they get paid each year, usually divided into 12 parts. A base salary is fixed to an agreed amount per month or year and includes holidays and sick leave benefits. A variable salary includes additional pay according to performance and can include other bonuses. In the Czech republic, all government employees earn a salary fixed by tables, according to their education, work position and years of experience.

          A wage is usually paid each week, for the work done. An hourly wage, also called a time rate, means that a person is paid a fixed amount for every hour they work. A legal minimum wage is the minimum amout of money a person can be paid.

          An income means money recevived on a regular basis, for work or through investments. It can be a wage, a salary, social and retirement benefits, or money earned form business, such as renting an apartment.

People Practising Law

Everyone who graduates a law school is a lawyer. It does not matter what kind of school this person graduated or the length of the programme. However, not every lawyer can represent their client at court. This person only has a legal qualification and can become a legal practitioner.

          A barrister is a person who graduated law in England, Wales, New Zealand or Australia. To represent a client at court, they have to first obtain a license from the Bar Council. They are involved in complex issues and provide specialist legal advice in specific areas of law.

          A solicitor has a legal qualification and a practising certificate. They usually provide legal advice, proofread documents, meet clients, draft case notes and prepare cases for the court stage. They also assist with business sales and purchases. 

          A lawyer with a license, for example from the Bar Council, is called an advocate. This means they can represent a client in court. A Senior Advocate is a title given by court to advocates with long years of practice. 

         An attorney can proctise law in a particular jurisdiction. They represent their client and have a professional code of conduct with confidentiality. In the US, an attorney has to pass the bar examination by the American Bar Association, so he is qualifies to reperesent clients at court. An Attorney General is an advocate who represents the government in its cases and provides legal advice to the government. 

          A counsel is a term sometimes used for lawyers who provide ligal advice. 

          In criminal cases, the person who appears on behalf of the state is called the Public Prosecutor. In civil cases, the person who appears on behalf of the state is called the Government Pleader.

Types of Work

Manual work is physical work, it can be further divided into skilled and unskilled jobs. Unskilled manual work requires no education and can be done by anyone. Usually, these are the worst paid professions, such as cleaners, porters and assembly line factory workers. Skilled manual work requires some qualification, at least a training course, but usually three years of apprenticeship. For some manual workers, a four year study finished by graduation is required. Today, these professions are in high demand, such as plumbers, electricians and mechanics. People doing manual jobs are sometimes called blue-collar workers, because of the colour of uniforms in factories.

          Intellectual work is done mentally, it requires higher education, usually at least a bechelor degree. These professions are usually better paid and receive a guarenteed salary. Typical intellectual prefessions are teachers, lawyers, architects, doctors and accountants. Some of these jobs are considered quite presigious, such as surgeons and university professors. These professionals are sometimes called white-collar workers, because they do not work with their hands and their clothes does not get dirty.

          Work for the emergency services usually requires both higher education and physical fitness. Professions such as fire fighter, paramedic, state police officer and soldier are physically demanding and sometimes dangerous. They require special courses and constant learning of new methods and laws. 

The state sector includes work mostly in various offices, government departmens, courts, schools and health service. These jobs offer a guaranteed salary and stability.

          The private sector offers work in business, from small firms to huge international corporations. These employers usually have higher demands on working hours, on the other hand, some companies offer their best employees higher salaries and many benefits. 

          Freelancers work only for themselves, which can be sometimes difficult, but it gives more freedom. Many freelancers struggle with getting loans, paying taxes and finding clients, but some start a sucessful business and become rich.

Some professions are highly preferred by one gender. Typical men jobs are a truck driver, mechanic, soldier, miner or plumber. Typical women jobs are a teacher, nurse, hairdresser, secretary and receptionist.

Some jobs require employees to wear uniforms according to titles, ranks, duties and environments. Uniforms provide physical protection during work and also serve for quick identification, in some cases, they also serve as a form of advertisement.

          In the private sector, many professions, such as waithesses or receptionists, are required to wear al least partially standardised clothes. Luxury services, such as expensive hotels, require their personel to wear uniforms. Many manual workers, such as plumbers or builders, wear protective clothing and sometimes, the company provides standarrdized clothes in a certain colour and with the company logo. Many fast-food chains are known to have special uniforms for all their staff.

          Emergency services, such as firefighters and police officers, are required to wear uniforms when working. This allows the public to easily identify these professionals, especially in difficult situations. Some professions, such as lifeguards, require specialized uniforms for their environment.

          All medical staff is required to wear uniforms, when in hospital. Many hospitals have colour codes to help easily identify nurses, doctors and allied healthe presonel. These uniforms are designed to keep them comfortable and protect them from germs. Hospital clothes are sometimes reffered to as scrubs, because they need to be clean all the time and the hospital sometimes provides laundry services for its employees. Also, in special conditions, such as laboratories and in departments with infectious patients, the hospital provides its employees with special protective gear.

          The army is known to have specialized uniforms, that are mandatory to wear for all soldiers in active duty. These uniforms are colour coded according to army branches, so that pilots or military police are easily recognized. The colour of the uniform is changed according to conditions in the field to provide cammouflage and modern uniforms provide protection against infrared identification.

Traditional Meals

Published: 21.09.2023

Traditional Meals

Typical Czech Food

bramboráky - fried potato pancakes (grated potatoes, eggs, flour, garlic, salt, pepper, marjoram)

čočková polévka - lentil soup

hrachová polévka - pea soup
jablkový štrůdl - apple strudel (strudel pastry jacket with apple filling)
koprová omáčka s hovězím a vejci natvrdo - dill sauce (cream, vinegar, dill or picked dill, flour) and dumplings with hard-boiled eggs and boiled beef
krupicová kaše - semolina porridge with cocoa and butter
kulajda - dill soup with mushrooms
pečená kachna se zelím a knedlíky - roast duck with bread roll stuffing with dumplings and sauerkraut
rybí polévka - fish soup

řízek a bramborový salát - schnitzel with potato salad
svíčková na smetaně - roast sirloin in sour cream souce (stewed carrot, celeriac, parsley root and onions) with dumplings (boiled or bread dumplings) with cranberry compote
šišky s mákem - potato cones with poppy seeds
vepřo-knedlo-zelo - roast pork (neck) with dumplings (bread or potato dumplings) and sauerkraut (or stewed cabbage)
zelňačka - cabbage soup
žemlovka - bread and butter pudding (sliced rolls, apples, raisins, cinnamon and whipped egg-whites)

full English breakfast

Full English Breakfast
bacon
sausages (bangers)
fried, poached or scrambled eggs
black pudding
baked beans
grilled or fried tomatoes
fried mushrooms
buttered toast or fried bread with marmelade or honey
bubble and squeak (potato and cabbage leftovers)

English Christmas Dinner

turkey with sage and onion stuffing and gravy

pigs in blankets (small sausages wrapped in bacon)

cranberry sauce or redcurrant jelly

roast potatoes and vegetables (Brussel sprouts, parnips)

Christmas pudding (flour, eggs, breadcrumbs, milk, sweet spices, suet fat, dark sugar and black treacle syrup, dried fruit, brandy or wine), sometimes dressed with warm brandy which is set alight

mince pies or triffle with brandy butter

Christmas cake or yule log cake

American Christmas Dinner

stuffer roasted fowl (pheasant, goose, duck or turkey) or roasted beef or beef Wellington 

country ham or Christmas ham

mashed potatoes with gravy

roasted root vegetables

cookies (gingerbread, sugar cookies, snickerdoodles)

fruitcake (unwanted gift, national joke)

eggnog

Thanksgiving Dinner

Thanksgiving dinner

roasted turkey stuffed with a bread-based mixture, sage, chopped onions and celery (nuts, sausage or bacon, carrots, raisins, apples)

mashed potatoes with gravy

cranberry sauce

winter squash, sweet potatoes and other roasted vegetables (carrots, celery, turnips, beets, radishes, asparagus, cauliflower)

Brusses sprouts with bacon

creamed corn

green bean casserole

macaroni and cheese

fresh salad

relish tray with pickles, olives, onions, peppers

pies (pumpkin, apple, mincemeat, cherry, chocolate cream)

Media

Published: 21.09.2023

Media

Media is a message delivery system through many types of channels to communicate effectively. There are many types of media and nowadays, many new types appeared. 

          In the beginning of human history, media developed as a means of communication between people. Probably the first means of communication were cave paintings, the oldest ones are more than 64 thousand years old. Before writing was invented, ideographic symbols and tokens were used, the first known are from Mesopotamia and are more than 9000 BC. The invention of the first writing system occured in Sumeria and Egypt in the Bronze Age, around 4000 BC. 

          The first organized post service was documented in Egypt in arounf 2400 BC. The earliest surviving piece of mail is also from Egypt, from 255 BC. The fisrst well-documented postal seervice was in Rome, during the rule of Gaius Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus. The service was called cursus publicus and was provided with light carriages pulled by fast horses. Since 1290, the Tassis (or Tasso) family organized couriers to deliver post in Italy. In 1505, Holy Roman Emperor Maxmillian I established a postal system in the Empire, appointing Franz von Taxis to run it. Since 1806, the Thurn-und-Taxis Post system continued as a private organization. The first postage stamp was invented in 1680 by William Dockwra in London, where confirmation of paid postage was indicated by a hand stamp. 

          Mass media are technologies that reach a large audience through mass communication. Print media transmit information through physical objects, for example books, magazines, newspapers, comics, billboards and pamphlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically, for example radio, TV, recorded music and films. Outdoor media is a form of mass media which includes billboards, signs and LED advertising screens.

Old media, traditional, cenventional or legacy media, comminicate with one-way technologies. They have been used for decades, even centuries, and people usually consider them more trustworthy. Traditional mass media include print, radio, TV and billboards.

          Books record information in the form of writing and images, they have many pages that are bound together and are protected by a cover. First books were written by hand and distributed by hand-copying, later by hand-printing. Around 1440 in Germany, Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press, which started the Printing Revolution. This invention drastically reduced the cost of printing books and popularized shorter print runs. Incunabule are books printed before the year 1500, they are very rare and expensive.

           A newspaper is a publication containing news, information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605 in Strasbourg. Nowadays, newspaper circulation continues to fall, as new media were introduced. Broadsheets were considered intellectual newspapers that emphasizes serious journalism. On the other hand, tabloids were smaller newspapers, often concentrated on gossip and sensational stories about celebrities.

          A magazine is a periodical publication containing articles, pictures and advertisements. They are published weekly, montly or quarterly, with a date on the cover, in colour and on coated paper. The earliest magazine was launched in 1663 in Germany.

          A telephone is a communications device that converts sound into electronic signals and transmits them through cables to another telephone. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was granted a US patent that was further developed.

          Analog recording uses analog signals and mechanical or electronic systems to record and broadcast audio and video. Today, signals are mostly broadcast in digital signal.

          Radio is the technology which uses radio waves to communicate. Radio waves were first identified in 1886 and today, they are used in radio and TV broadcasting, cell phones, wireless networking and satellite communication. The first practical radio transmitters and receivers were developed in 1896 and radio began to be used commercially around year 1900.

          Films are motion pictures, also called movies or flicks, produced by recording image ans sound by cameras. Dubbing and subtitles are used to translate films from original languages. First attempts to create films from photographies were in 1844 and in the 1850s, instantaneous photography was invented. In the 1880s, celluloid photographic film was introduced and in 1895, the first public screenings of films for money took place in the US.

          Sound recording and reproduction is usually used to record music. The first recording machine, the phonograph, was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison. Later, the invention evolved into a gramophone and since 1940s, it is called a record player. When electrical recording was developed, the magnetic wire recorder and tepe recorder were invented. Digital recording brought the compact discs called CD and today, digital audio players are used.

          Television is a medium transmitting images and sound for advertising, entertainment, news and sports. Cable television programs have a limited audience and they usually require a subscription or offer per-per-view service. Through various inventions, the TV became available in the 1930s and in 1935, the first regular TB broadcast took place in Berlin.

          A music video integrates a music song with imagery that is produced for artistic purposes. The illustrated song, where still images were projected, was invented in 1984. Musical short films were produced since the 1920s and promotional clips since the 1950s. The music video genre began in 1974, with TV shows Countdown and Sounds.

New media are digital channels that have gained popularity in the recent decades. The new media industry continued to grow with digitalization, globalization and the availability of smart phones, computers and the Internet. New mass media are usually less expensive, more interactive, they have a wider reach and provide data about their users. 

          The Information Age, also called Computer or Digital, is a historical period that began after WWII. It began with the development of the transistor in 1947 and the optical amplifier in 1957. The economy became based on information technology and marked the era of interdependence. 

          Digital media are communication media that use encoded machine-readable data formats. Digitized information can include text, audio, video and graphics and can be shared by Internet platforms. Since the digital revolution, digital media brought new challenges to many industries, that include publishing copyright, online piracy and fake news.

           A computer is a digital electronic machine which has hardware, software and uses other equipment. Computing mechanisms are known to exist in ancient times, for example the Antikythera mechanism. Early digital computers were electromechanical and slow, these were used since 1939 and in 1941, the first programmable, fully automatic digital computer was used. In 1948, the Manchester Baby was the first computer with an electronic stored program. In 1958, the first working integrated circuit was invented and in 1964, they were commercially used in computers. The first mobile computers were heavy and ran on mains power only, but since the 1990s, they used batteries.

          A smart phone is a portable devce that combines a mobile telephone and a computer. The technology required was mostly deveped in the 1980s and commercialized since 1991. Since 1994, a cell phone could receive phone calls, receive and send faxes and emails, and was equiped with a calendar, calculator, clock and a notepad. Outside of Japan, smartphones were rare until 2002 and in 2007, the iPhone with a touchscreen was introduced.

          The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks. It carries a wide range of information resources and services, including email and file sharing. ARPANET, the first network of computers, was introduced in 1969 and lasted until 1990. The Internet was launched in 1989 and soon, the WWW browser and the HTTP and HTML tools were invented. For broadcasting on the Internet, terms webcasting and podcasting are used.

          Social media are interactive technologies and digital channels that are used for creation and sharing of information and ideas through communities and networks. They are Internet-based applications, where users have profiles and generate content and conncet with other users.